Human immunodeficiency Immunodeficiency Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome virus Virus Viruses are infectious, obligate intracellular parasites composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein capsid. Viruses can be either naked (non-enveloped) or enveloped. The classification of viruses is complex and based on many factors, including type and structure of the nucleoid and capsid, the presence of an envelope, the replication cycle, and the host range. Virology ( HIV HIV Anti-HIV Drugs), a single-stranded RNA RNA A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity. RNA Types and Structure virus Virus Viruses are infectious, obligate intracellular parasites composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein capsid. Viruses can be either naked (non-enveloped) or enveloped. The classification of viruses is complex and based on many factors, including type and structure of the nucleoid and capsid, the presence of an envelope, the replication cycle, and the host range. Virology belonging to the Retroviridae Retroviridae The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a species of Lentivirus, a genus of the family Retroviridae, which causes HIV infections and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The virus has high genetic variability and is divided into 2 major types, HIV type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV type 2 (HIV-2). The human immunodeficiency virus is a single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped RNA virus, which targets and destroys WBCs, leading to frequent opportunistic infections and, eventually, death. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) family, is the etiologic agent of acquired immunodeficiency Immunodeficiency Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome syndrome (AIDS). The human immunodeficiency Immunodeficiency Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome virus Virus Viruses are infectious, obligate intracellular parasites composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein capsid. Viruses can be either naked (non-enveloped) or enveloped. The classification of viruses is complex and based on many factors, including type and structure of the nucleoid and capsid, the presence of an envelope, the replication cycle, and the host range. Virology is a sexually transmitted or blood-borne infection that attacks CD4+ T lymphocyte cells, macrophages Macrophages The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood monocytes. Main types are peritoneal macrophages; alveolar macrophages; histiocytes; kupffer cells of the liver; and osteoclasts. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to epithelioid cells or may fuse to form foreign body giant cells or langhans giant cells. Innate Immunity: Phagocytes and Antigen Presentation, and dendritic cells Dendritic cells Specialized cells of the hematopoietic system that have branch-like extensions. They are found throughout the lymphatic system, and in non-lymphoid tissues such as skin and the epithelia of the intestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts. They trap and process antigens, and present them to T-cells, thereby stimulating cell-mediated immunity. They are different from the non-hematopoietic follicular dendritic cells, which have a similar morphology and immune system function, but with respect to humoral immunity (antibody production). Skin: Structure and Functions, leading to eventual immunodeficiency Immunodeficiency Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome. The presentation Presentation The position or orientation of the fetus at near term or during obstetric labor, determined by its relation to the spine of the mother and the birth canal. The normal position is a vertical, cephalic presentation with the fetal vertex flexed on the neck. Normal and Abnormal Labor is marked by constitutional symptoms Constitutional Symptoms Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody (ANCA)-Associated Vasculitis such as lymphadenopathy Lymphadenopathy Lymphadenopathy is lymph node enlargement (> 1 cm) and is benign and self-limited in most patients. Etiologies include malignancy, infection, and autoimmune disorders, as well as iatrogenic causes such as the use of certain medications. Generalized lymphadenopathy often indicates underlying systemic disease. Lymphadenopathy and fever Fever Fever is defined as a measured body temperature of at least 38°C (100.4°F). Fever is caused by circulating endogenous and/or exogenous pyrogens that increase levels of prostaglandin E2 in the hypothalamus. Fever is commonly associated with chills, rigors, sweating, and flushing of the skin. Fever. Further progression predisposes to opportunistic infections Infections Invasion of the host organism by microorganisms or their toxins or by parasites that can cause pathological conditions or diseases. Chronic Granulomatous Disease and malignancies. Diagnosis is by enzyme immunoassay for HIV-1 and -2. Additional tests include HIV HIV Anti-HIV Drugs viral load, genotyping Genotyping Methods used to determine individuals' specific alleles or snps (single nucleotide polymorphisms). Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), and CD4+ T lymphocyte count Lymphocyte count The number of lymphocytes per unit volume of blood. Lymphocytosis to determine therapy and evaluate treatment response and disease progression. Immediate treatment with combination antiretroviral therapy Antiretroviral therapy Antiretroviral therapy (ART) targets the replication cycle of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and is classified based on the viral enzyme or mechanism that is inhibited. The goal of therapy is to suppress viral replication to reach the outcome of undetected viral load. Anti-HIV Drugs is recommended.
Last updated: 30 Nov, 2021
2017 world map of
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs
infections
Infections
Invasion of the host organism by microorganisms or their toxins or by parasites that can cause pathological conditions or diseases.
Chronic Granulomatous Disease (in people aged 15 to 49 years of age):
The colors indicate the percent of population with human
immunodeficiency
Immunodeficiency
Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome
virus
Virus
Viruses are infectious, obligate intracellular parasites composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein capsid. Viruses can be either naked (non-enveloped) or enveloped. The classification of viruses is complex and based on many factors, including type and structure of the nucleoid and capsid, the presence of an envelope, the replication cycle, and the host range.
Virology (
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs) infection in each country. The information regarding the corresponding percent of population (designated color) is below the world map.
Diagram of the HIV HIV Anti-HIV Drugs virion featuring the structure of its genome Genome The complete genetic complement contained in the DNA of a set of chromosomes in a human. The length of the human genome is about 3 billion base pairs. Basic Terms of Genetics and its main enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes and glycoproteins Glycoproteins Conjugated protein-carbohydrate compounds including mucins, mucoid, and amyloid glycoproteins. Basics of Carbohydrates (gp120 and gp41)
Image: “Diagram of the HIV HIV Anti-HIV Drugs virus Virus Viruses are infectious, obligate intracellular parasites composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein capsid. Viruses can be either naked (non-enveloped) or enveloped. The classification of viruses is complex and based on many factors, including type and structure of the nucleoid and capsid, the presence of an envelope, the replication cycle, and the host range. Virology” by US National Institute of Health. License: Public DomainSexual:
Parenteral:
Vertical:
HIV replication
HIV replication
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
cycle
Cycle
The type of signal that ends the inspiratory phase delivered by the ventilator
Invasive Mechanical Ventilation:
1. Virion binds the CD4
receptor
Receptor
Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell.
Receptors and a chemokine
receptor
Receptor
Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell.
Receptors, followed by a conformational change that facilitates fusion of the virion and the host cell.
2. A
capsid
Capsid
The outer protein protective shell of a virus, which protects the viral nucleic acid. Capsids are composed of repeating units (capsomers or capsomeres) of capsid proteins which when assembled together form either an icosahedral or helical shape.
Virology protein shell (surrounding the viral
RNA
RNA
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity.
RNA Types and Structure and
proteins
Proteins
Linear polypeptides that are synthesized on ribosomes and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during protein folding, and the function of the protein.
Energy Homeostasis) is uncoated as the virion traverses the cytoplasm.
3. Reverse transcriptase-mediated
synthesis
Synthesis
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) of proviral
DNA
DNA
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
DNA Types and Structure occurs.
4. Viral
DNA
DNA
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
DNA Types and Structure is transported across the
nucleus
Nucleus
Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (cell nucleolus). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. A cell may contain more than one nucleus.
The Cell: Organelles and integrated into the host
DNA
DNA
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
DNA Types and Structure, facilitated by integrase.
5. Viral
DNA
DNA
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
DNA Types and Structure is transcribed, and multiple copies of new
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs
RNA
RNA
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity.
RNA Types and Structure form and are transported to the cytoplasm. New
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs
RNA
RNA
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity.
RNA Types and Structure becomes the
genome
Genome
The complete genetic complement contained in the DNA of a set of chromosomes in a human. The length of the human genome is about 3 billion base pairs.
Basic Terms of Genetics of a new
virus
Virus
Viruses are infectious, obligate intracellular parasites composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein capsid. Viruses can be either naked (non-enveloped) or enveloped. The classification of viruses is complex and based on many factors, including type and structure of the nucleoid and capsid, the presence of an envelope, the replication cycle, and the host range.
Virology. Cytokine activation of the cell also occurs.
6. New viral
RNA
RNA
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity.
RNA Types and Structure +
proteins
Proteins
Linear polypeptides that are synthesized on ribosomes and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during protein folding, and the function of the protein.
Energy Homeostasis +
enzymes
Enzymes
Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules.
Basics of Enzymes move to the cell surface and form a
noninfectious
Noninfectious
Febrile Infant particle.
7. Particle (viral
RNA
RNA
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity.
RNA Types and Structure +
proteins
Proteins
Linear polypeptides that are synthesized on ribosomes and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during protein folding, and the function of the protein.
Energy Homeostasis) eventually buds out of the host cell with the immature
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs. Viral protein protease (enzyme) then cleaves newly synthesized polyproteins producing a mature
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs.
Mechanism of
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs entry and membrane fusion:
1. Gp120
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs interacts with CD4 (host cell).
2. A secondary interaction with another
receptor
Receptor
Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell.
Receptors CCR5 follows, with a conformational change in gp120.
3. The
tips
TIPS
A type of surgical portasystemic shunt to reduce portal hypertension with associated complications of esophageal varices and ascites. It is performed percutaneously through the jugular vein and involves the creation of an intrahepatic shunt between the hepatic vein and portal vein. The channel is maintained by a metallic stent. The procedure can be performed in patients who have failed sclerotherapy and is an additional option to the surgical techniques of portocaval, mesocaval, and splenorenal shunts. It takes one to three hours to perform.
Cirrhosis of gp41 are inserted into the cellular membrane.
4. Gp41 folds in half and forms coiled coils. The viral and cellular membranes pull together, leading to fusion.
Acute phase Acute phase Short Bowel Syndrome (infection, dissemination, retroviral syndrome):
Chronic phase/clinical latency:
AIDS:
Graph of the
relationship
Relationship
A connection, association, or involvement between 2 or more parties.
Clinician–Patient Relationship between CD4+ T cell count and viral load during the clinical course of
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs infection and AIDS:
In primary/acute infection (initial infection, dissemination, and acute retroviral syndrome), an increase in viral load (
viremia
Viremia
The presence of viruses in the blood.
Erythema Infectiosum) with declining CD4+
T cells
T cells
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified – cytotoxic (t-lymphocytes, cytotoxic) and helper T-lymphocytes (t-lymphocytes, helper-inducer). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the thymus gland and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
T cells: Types and Functions is noted. This period lasts weeks. In the period of clinical latency, low-level but sustained viral replication occurs and gradual decline of CD4+ cells is seen. Progression to AIDS is the result of the breakdown of host defenses, with depleted CD4+
T cells
T cells
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified – cytotoxic (t-lymphocytes, cytotoxic) and helper T-lymphocytes (t-lymphocytes, helper-inducer). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the thymus gland and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
T cells: Types and Functions and increasing viral load. This process predisposes to opportunistic
infections
Infections
Invasion of the host organism by microorganisms or their toxins or by parasites that can cause pathological conditions or diseases.
Chronic Granulomatous Disease.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) classification notes that CD4+ T lymphocyte count Lymphocyte count The number of lymphocytes per unit volume of blood. Lymphocytosis is:
CD CD Cesarean delivery (CD) is the operative delivery of ≥ 1 infants through a surgical incision in the maternal abdomen and uterus. Cesarean deliveries may be indicated for a number of either maternal or fetal reasons, most commonly including fetal intolerance to labor, arrest of labor, a history of prior uterine surgery, fetal malpresentation, and placental abnormalities. Cesarean Delivery 4+ T cell categories/stage | 1 | 2 | 3 |
---|---|---|---|
Clinical categories | CD4+ ≥ 500 cells/µL | CD4+ 200–499 cells/µL | CD4+ < 200 cells/µL* |
A: Asymptomatic, acute HIV HIV Anti-HIV Drugs, persistent lymphadenopathy Lymphadenopathy Lymphadenopathy is lymph node enlargement (> 1 cm) and is benign and self-limited in most patients. Etiologies include malignancy, infection, and autoimmune disorders, as well as iatrogenic causes such as the use of certain medications. Generalized lymphadenopathy often indicates underlying systemic disease. Lymphadenopathy | A1 | A2 | A3 |
B: Symptomatic, not A or C | B1 | B2 | B3 |
C: AIDS, including opportunistic infections Infections Invasion of the host organism by microorganisms or their toxins or by parasites that can cause pathological conditions or diseases. Chronic Granulomatous Disease, neurologic disease, and tumors | C1 | C2 | C3 |
Acute retroviral syndrome ( acute phase Acute phase Short Bowel Syndrome):
Aphthous stomatitis Stomatitis Stomatitis is a general term referring to inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth, which may include sores. Stomatitis can be caused by infections, autoimmune disorders, allergic reactions, or exposure to irritants. The typical presentation may be either solitary or a group of painful oral lesions. Stomatitis typical of that seen in acute retroviral syndrome
Image: “6055” by CDC/ Sol Silverman, Jr., DDS. License: Public DomainViral maculopapular Maculopapular Dermatologic Examination exanthem Exanthem Diseases in which skin eruptions or rashes are a prominent manifestation. Classically, six such diseases were described with similar rashes; they were numbered in the order in which they were reported. Only the fourth (Duke’s disease), fifth (erythema infectiosum), and sixth (exanthema subitum) numeric designations survive as occasional synonyms in current terminology. Varicella-Zoster Virus/Chickenpox seen in acute retroviral syndrome
Image: “14925” by CDC/ Dr. Gavin Hart. License: Public DomainChronic infection (clinical latency):
AIDS:
Cutaneous lesions of Kaposi Kaposi A multicentric, malignant neoplastic vascular proliferation characterized by the development of bluish-red cutaneous nodules, usually on the lower extremities, most often on the toes or feet, and slowly increasing in size and number and spreading to more proximal areas. The tumors have endothelium-lined channels and vascular spaces admixed with variably sized aggregates of spindle-shaped cells, and often remain confined to the skin and subcutaneous tissue, but widespread visceral involvement may occur. Hhv-8 is the suspected cause. There is also a high incidence in AIDS patients. AIDS-defining Conditions‘s sarcoma
Image: “ Kaposi Kaposi A multicentric, malignant neoplastic vascular proliferation characterized by the development of bluish-red cutaneous nodules, usually on the lower extremities, most often on the toes or feet, and slowly increasing in size and number and spreading to more proximal areas. The tumors have endothelium-lined channels and vascular spaces admixed with variably sized aggregates of spindle-shaped cells, and often remain confined to the skin and subcutaneous tissue, but widespread visceral involvement may occur. Hhv-8 is the suspected cause. There is also a high incidence in AIDS patients. AIDS-defining Conditions‘s sarcoma” by OpenStax College. License: CC BY 3.0
Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasmosis is an infectious disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite. Felines are the definitive host, but transmission to humans can occur through contact with cat feces or the consumption of contaminated foods. The clinical presentation and complications depend on the host’s immune status.
Toxoplasma/Toxoplasmosis and AIDS:
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showing ring enhancing of the capsule-thalamic lesion in a patient with hemichorea-hemiballismus
Cryptococcosis
Cryptococcosis
Cryptococcosis is an opportunistic, fungal infection caused by the Cryptococcus species. The principal pathogens in humans are C. neoformans (primary) and C. gattii. The majority of affected patients are immunocompromised. Patients with AIDS, chronic steroid use, and organ transplant are particularly affected. Cryptococcosis is an AIDS-defining illness and typically associated with CD4 count < 100 cells/μL.
Cryptococcus/Cryptococcosis:
Chest
X-ray
X-ray
Penetrating electromagnetic radiation emitted when the inner orbital electrons of an atom are excited and release radiant energy. X-ray wavelengths range from 1 pm to 10 nm. Hard x-rays are the higher energy, shorter wavelength x-rays. Soft x-rays or grenz rays are less energetic and longer in wavelength. The short wavelength end of the x-ray spectrum overlaps the gamma rays wavelength range. The distinction between gamma rays and x-rays is based on their radiation source.
Pulmonary Function Tests and computed tomography (CT) show a solitary pulmonary
nodule
Nodule
Chalazion. The diagnosis of
cryptococcosis
Cryptococcosis
Cryptococcosis is an opportunistic, fungal infection caused by the Cryptococcus species. The principal pathogens in humans are C. neoformans (primary) and C. gattii. The majority of affected patients are immunocompromised. Patients with AIDS, chronic steroid use, and organ transplant are particularly affected. Cryptococcosis is an AIDS-defining illness and typically associated with CD4 count < 100 cells/μL.
Cryptococcus/Cryptococcosis was confirmed on
biopsy
Biopsy
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens from the living body.
Ewing Sarcoma.
Mycobacterium Mycobacterium Mycobacterium is a genus of the family Mycobacteriaceae in the phylum Actinobacteria. Mycobacteria comprise more than 150 species of facultative intracellular bacilli that are mostly obligate aerobes. Mycobacteria are responsible for multiple human infections including serious diseases, such as tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis), leprosy (M. leprae), and M. avium complex infections. Mycobacterium avium complex: A man with HIV HIV Anti-HIV Drugs evaluated for severe right-sided upper abdominal pain Abdominal Pain Acute Abdomen. Despite treatment, he developed an enlarged supraclavicular lymph Lymph The interstitial fluid that is in the lymphatic system. Secondary Lymphatic Organs node abscess Abscess Accumulation of purulent material in tissues, organs, or circumscribed spaces, usually associated with signs of infection. Chronic Granulomatous Disease. Aspirate revealed MAC.
Image: “Left supraclavicular abscessed lymph Lymph The interstitial fluid that is in the lymphatic system. Secondary Lymphatic Organs node” by Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Infectious Febrile Infant Diseases, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA. License: CC BY 2.0
Mycobacterium avium complex
Mycobacterium avium Complex
A complex that includes several strains of M. avium. M. Intracellulare is not easily distinguished from M. avium and therefore is included in the complex. These organisms are most frequently found in pulmonary secretions from persons with a tuberculous-like mycobacteriosis. Strains of this complex have also been associated with childhood lymphadenitis and AIDS; M. avium alone causes tuberculosis in a variety of birds and other animals, including pigs.
Mycobacterium:
A man with
HIV
HIV
Anti-HIV Drugs evaluated for severe right-sided upper
abdominal pain
Abdominal Pain
Acute Abdomen. An abdominal CT revealed multiple enlarged necrotic intra-abdominal
lymph nodes
Lymph Nodes
They are oval or bean shaped bodies (1 – 30 mm in diameter) located along the lymphatic system.
Lymphatic Drainage System: Anatomy.
Pneumocystis
pneumonia
Pneumonia
Pneumonia or pulmonary inflammation is an acute or chronic inflammation of lung tissue. Causes include infection with bacteria, viruses, or fungi. In more rare cases, pneumonia can also be caused through toxic triggers through inhalation of toxic substances, immunological processes, or in the course of radiotherapy.
Pneumonia:
2 chest radiographs show ground-glass appearance. The right chest
X-ray
X-ray
Penetrating electromagnetic radiation emitted when the inner orbital electrons of an atom are excited and release radiant energy. X-ray wavelengths range from 1 pm to 10 nm. Hard x-rays are the higher energy, shorter wavelength x-rays. Soft x-rays or grenz rays are less energetic and longer in wavelength. The short wavelength end of the x-ray spectrum overlaps the gamma rays wavelength range. The distinction between gamma rays and x-rays is based on their radiation source.
Pulmonary Function Tests findings mimic pulmonary
edema
Edema
Edema is a condition in which excess serous fluid accumulates in the body cavity or interstitial space of connective tissues. Edema is a symptom observed in several medical conditions. It can be categorized into 2 types, namely, peripheral (in the extremities) and internal (in an organ or body cavity).
Edema.
Chest CT showing the hallmark of Pneumocystis
pneumonia
Pneumonia
Pneumonia or pulmonary inflammation is an acute or chronic inflammation of lung tissue. Causes include infection with bacteria, viruses, or fungi. In more rare cases, pneumonia can also be caused through toxic triggers through inhalation of toxic substances, immunological processes, or in the course of radiotherapy.
Pneumonia in a clinical setting of immune compromise:
Note the ground-glass attenuation with a geographic or mosaic distribution.
India Ink
India ink
Cryptococcus/Cryptococcosis mount of
cryptococcus
Cryptococcus
Cryptococcosis is an opportunistic, fungal infection caused by the Cryptococcus species. The principal pathogens in humans are C. neoformans (primary) and C. gattii. Cryptococcus neoformans is typically found in pigeon droppings and acquired by inhaling dust from contaminated soil. The majority of affected patients are immunocompromised.
Cryptococcus/Cryptococcosis:
Note the
capsule
Capsule
An envelope of loose gel surrounding a bacterial cell which is associated with the virulence of pathogenic bacteria. Some capsules have a well-defined border, whereas others form a slime layer that trails off into the medium. Most capsules consist of relatively simple polysaccharides but there are some bacteria whose capsules are made of polypeptides.
Bacteroides surrounding the
budding
Budding
Mycology
yeast
Yeast
A general term for single-celled rounded fungi that reproduce by budding. Brewers’ and bakers’ yeasts are saccharomyces cerevisiae; therapeutic dried yeast is yeast, dried.
Mycology.
P. jiroveci:
Methenamine silver
Methenamine silver
Pneumocystis jirovecii/Pneumocystis Pneumonia (PCP) stain demonstrating clusters of P. jiroveci
cysts
Cysts
Any fluid-filled closed cavity or sac that is lined by an epithelium. Cysts can be of normal, abnormal, non-neoplastic, or neoplastic tissues.
Fibrocystic Change in the sputum
Algorithm for the diagnosis and differentiation between an HIV HIV Anti-HIV Drugs infection produced by subtype HIV-1 and subtype HIV-2
Image by Lecturio.Stage | < 1 year | 1–5 years | ≥ 6 years |
---|---|---|---|
0 | NA | NA | NA |
1 | ≥ 1,500 cells/µL | ≥ 1,000 cells/µL | ≥ 500 cells/µL |
2 | 750–1,499 cells/µL | 500–999 cells/µL | 200–499 cells/µL |
3 (AIDS) | < 750 cells/µL | < 500 cells/µL | < 200 cells/µL |