Embolism – Top USMLE Diseases

An embolus is an intravascular solid, liquid, or gaseous material that is carried by the blood to a site distant from its point of origin. Emboli of all types warrant immediate medical attention. The majority of emboli dislodge from a thrombus, forming a thromboembolus. Other less common nonthrombotic types of emboli are cholesterol, fat, air, amniotic fluid, and tumor emboli. The cause of the embolus depends on the type, as does the clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of each embolic condition. Due to their effects on circulation, all emboli have the potential to result in end-organ failure and death.

Worldwide, the most frequent cause of death is heart disease. Thus, the common conditions that are evaluated in healthcare facilities are often related to the heart or the cardiovascular system: hypertension, atherosclerotic disease, and heart failure. In radiologic terms, this region is likely the most frequently studied aspect of human anatomy in healthcare delivery settings. Multiple methods are used, including X-ray, CT, MRI, echocardiography, nuclear imaging, and angiography. Each test has its advantages and disadvantages and is obtained on the basis of the clinical presentation, acuity of symptoms, and risks and benefits to the patient. It is important to know the roles of imaging studies to help determine the proper treatment.

Anticoagulants are drugs that retard or interrupt the coagulation cascade. The primary classes of available anticoagulants include heparins, vitamin K-dependent antagonists (e.g., warfarin), direct thrombin inhibitors, and factor Xa inhibitors. Anticoagulants are used in the treatment and prevention of thrombotic and embolic diseases including cardioembolic ischemic stroke, acute coronary syndrome, and venous thromboembolism, among other conditions. Patients with atrial fibrillation or thrombophilias may require indefinite or lifelong anticoagulation. Accordingly, the route of administration, drug interactions, pharmacokinetics, and availability of reversal factors should be considered while selecting the anticoagulant therapy.

Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. To perform this function, the lungs need to be able to capture as much O2 as possible, a task that is easily achieved owing to their elastic morphology. Each lung is enclosed within the visceral pleura and completely fills 1 of the non-symmetrical pleural cavities, which are situated on the left and right sides of the mediastinum. The lungs encase the bronchial tree and are divided functionally and anatomically into lobes.

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a potentially fatal condition that occurs as a result of intraluminal obstruction of the main pulmonary artery or its branches. The causative factors include thrombi, air, amniotic fluid, and fat. In PE, gas exchange is impaired due to the decreased return of deoxygenated blood to the lungs. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is diagnosed in > 50% of patients presenting with symptoms, in whom the lower-extremity deep-venous system is the most common source of thrombus. Some individuals are asymptomatic, but the most common presenting symptom is dyspnea. The symptoms can be acute or chronic, and diagnosis is usually based on radiographic findings. Initial management is supportive and focuses on restoring oxygenation and hemodynamic stability. Both medical (systemic anticoagulants) and interventional therapies (catheter-based approach, surgery) are used to reestablish vessel patency.