Chronic Pancreatitis – Top USMLE Diseases

Cholestasis in neonates and young infants is conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in the 1st 3 months of life due to impaired bile excretion. Biliary tract malformations involving the gallbladder and bile duct are grouped into cystic and noncystic obliterative cholangiopathies, the most common of which is biliary atresia. Less common causes include the genetic Alagille syndrome, infectious causes, and metabolic disorders. Clinical presentation is with obstructive jaundice. Ultrasonography and MRCP are useful diagnostic tools, and a prenatal diagnosis is sometimes made with ultrasonography. Cystic causes frequently require surgery to correct the defect and allow for normal child growth. Liver transplantation may be needed in cases of biliary atresia with portal hypertension.

The hepatobiliary system is composed of the liver, gallbladder, and bile ducts (within the liver and external to the liver). The liver produces bile, which is a fluid made of cholesterol, phospholipids, conjugated bilirubin, bile salts, electrolytes, and water. Bile, which assists in digestion and helps eliminate waste products, is stored in the gallbladder. The hepatobiliary system can be affected by infections, cysts, solid masses, ischemia, and mechanical flow obstruction, which mandate the presence of reliable imaging tests to determine the etiology. The methods that evaluate structural changes in the liver and biliary tract include ultrasonography, CT scan, and MRI (including magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography). Additionally, cholescintigraphy, a functional imaging study, helps identify gallbladder pathology by tracking the biliary pathway.

Chronic pancreatitis is due to persistent inflammation, fibrosis, and irreversible cell damage to the pancreas, resulting in a loss of endocrine and exocrine gland function. The most common etiologies are alcohol abuse and pancreatic duct obstruction. Patients often present with recurrent epigastric abdominal pain, nausea, and features of malabsorption syndrome (diarrhea, steatorrhea, and weight loss). Characteristic computed tomography (CT) findings include pancreatic atrophy, dilated pancreatic ducts, and pancreatic calcifications. Therapy focuses on alcohol cessation, diet changes, pain management, and treatment of pancreatic insufficiency.

Acute pancreatitis is an inflammatory disease of the pancreas due to autodigestion. Common etiologies include gallstones and excessive alcohol use. Patients typically present with epigastric pain radiating to the back. Diagnosis requires 2 of 3 criteria, including: characteristic abdominal pain, serum amylase and lipase 3 times the upper limit of normal, or characteristic radiology findings. Ranson’s criteria is commonly used to assess the severity. Management includes aggressive intravenous (IV) hydration, analgesia, nutritional support, and treatment of the underlying cause.

The pancreas is a composite organ containing a distinctive combination of cell lineages. The exocrine tissue comprises acinar cells, which secrete digestive enzymes into the intestine. The endocrine function is performed by the islets of Langerhans, which consist of distinct cell types secreting 4 different hormones into the circulation (α-cells, glucagon; β-cells, insulin; δ-cells, somatostatin; and γ-cells, pancreatic polypeptide). Endocrine hormones, as well as some exocrine enzymes, can be measured in body fluids and provide important diagnostic information in acute and chronic pancreatic disease.

Opiates are drugs that are derived from the sap of the opium poppy. Opiates have been used since antiquity for the relief of acute severe pain. Opioids are synthetic opiates with properties that are substantially similar to those of opiates. Known for their remarkable efficacy, opioids induce their effects (analgesia, euphoria, and sedation) by interacting with opioid receptors (μ, κ, and δ) in the nervous system. Opiates/opioids have adverse effects that include respiratory depression, nausea and vomiting, decreased GI motility and constipation, tolerance, dependence, and addiction.

The pancreas lies mostly posterior to the stomach and extends across the posterior abdominal wall from the duodenum on the right to the spleen on the left. The pancreas is covered with a very thin connective tissue capsule that extends inward as septa, partitioning the gland into lobules. This organ has both exocrine and endocrine tissue. The exocrine portion is organized in grape-like clusters of acini, which are small sacs surrounding the terminal ends of pancreatic ducts. The cells lining the acini and ducts secrete products that make up pancreatic juices, which play a major role in digestion. The endocrine portion of the gland consists of circular islets interspersed between acini, which secrete glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin.

The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac, located directly beneath the liver, that sits on top of the superior part of the duodenum. The primary functions of the gallbladder include concentrating and storing up to 50 mL of bile. Bile is secreted by hepatocytes into thin channels called canaliculi. These canaliculi lead into slightly larger interlobular bile ductules, which are part of the portal triads at the “corners” of hepatic lobules. The bile leaves the liver via the right and left hepatic ducts, which join together to form the common hepatic duct. The common hepatic duct joins with the cystic duct to form the common bile duct, which empties into the small intestine. If the sphincters leading into the intestines are closed, bile will travel via the cystic duct into the gallbladder for storage.