Digestion refers to the process of the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller particles, which can then be absorbed and utilized by the body. Absorption involves the uptake of nutrient molecules and their transfer from the lumen of the GI tract across the enterocytes and into the interstitial space, where they can be taken up in the venous or lymphatic circulation Circulation The movement of the blood as it is pumped through the cardiovascular system. ABCDE Assessment. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates A class of organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of cn(H2O)n. The largest class of organic compounds, including starch; glycogen; cellulose; polysaccharides; and simple monosaccharides. Basics of Carbohydrates, proteins Proteins Linear polypeptides that are synthesized on ribosomes and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during protein folding, and the function of the protein. Energy Homeostasis, lipids Lipids Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic organic molecules, which include fats, oils, sterols, and waxes. Fatty Acids and Lipids, and micronutrients are digested and absorbed differently and require several enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body's constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes and transport proteins Transport proteins Proteins and Peptides to complete the process.
Last updated: 30 May, 2022
Overview of macromolecule digestion and absorption
AA
AA
Amyloidosis:
amino acid
Amino acid
Amino acids (AAs) are composed of a central carbon atom attached to a carboxyl group, an amino group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R group).
Basics of Amino Acids
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates A class of organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of cn(H2O)n. The largest class of organic compounds, including starch; glycogen; cellulose; polysaccharides; and simple monosaccharides. Basics of Carbohydrates are primarily digested by amylases Amylases A group of amylolytic enzymes that cleave starch, glycogen, and related alpha-1, 4-glucans. Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates and brush border Brush border Tubular System enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates A class of organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of cn(H2O)n. The largest class of organic compounds, including starch; glycogen; cellulose; polysaccharides; and simple monosaccharides. Basics of Carbohydrates can only be absorbed as monosaccharides Monosaccharides Single chain carbohydrates that are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are typically colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CNH2NON. Basics of Carbohydrates; accordingly, enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes hydrolyze large starch molecules to monosaccharides Monosaccharides Single chain carbohydrates that are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are typically colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CNH2NON. Basics of Carbohydrates.
Amylases Amylases A group of amylolytic enzymes that cleave starch, glycogen, and related alpha-1, 4-glucans. Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates:
Amylopectin is partially digested by amylase. Amylopectin molecules are chains of glucose Glucose A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. Lactose Intolerance, joined together by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds (creation of a straight chain of glucose Glucose A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. Lactose Intolerance molecules) and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds (creation of a branch from the straight chain). Amylase breaks the α-1,4-glycosidic bonds.
Image by Lecturio.Brush border Brush border Tubular System enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes:
Brush border Brush border Tubular System enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes are membrane-bound proteins Proteins Linear polypeptides that are synthesized on ribosomes and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during protein folding, and the function of the protein. Energy Homeostasis on the luminal surface of enterocytes in the small intestine Small intestine The small intestine is the longest part of the GI tract, extending from the pyloric orifice of the stomach to the ileocecal junction. The small intestine is the major organ responsible for chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients. It is divided into 3 segments: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. Small Intestine: Anatomy. There are 4 major brush border Brush border Tubular System enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes involved in carbohydrate digestion.
Isomaltase Isomaltase An enzyme that catalyzes the endohydrolysis of 1, 6-alpha-glycosidic linkages in isomaltose and dextrins produced from starch and glycogen by alpha-amylases. Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates breaks the α-1,6-glycosidic bonds present in amylopectin. The α-1,6-glycosidic bonds create branches off the “straight chains” of glucose Glucose A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. Lactose Intolerance by joining the 1st carbon on 1 chain (top ring structure) to the 6th carbon on another chain (bottom 2-ring structure). Isomaltase Isomaltase An enzyme that catalyzes the endohydrolysis of 1, 6-alpha-glycosidic linkages in isomaltose and dextrins produced from starch and glycogen by alpha-amylases. Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates hydrolyzes these bonds.
Image by Lecturio.
Brush border
Brush border
Tubular System digestion:
Diagram of the disaccharide lactose being hydrolyzed by
lactase
Lactase
An enzyme which catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose to d-galactose and d-glucose. Defects in the enzyme cause lactose intolerance.
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates into constituent
monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
Single chain carbohydrates that are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are typically colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CNH2NON.
Basics of Carbohydrates,
galactose
Galactose
An aldohexose that occurs naturally in the d-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. Deficiency of galactosyl-1-phosphate uridyltransferase causes an error in galactose metabolism called galactosemia, resulting in elevations of galactose in the blood.
Lactose Intolerance and
glucose
Glucose
A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.
Lactose Intolerance. Both
glucose
Glucose
A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.
Lactose Intolerance and
galactose
Galactose
An aldohexose that occurs naturally in the d-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. Deficiency of galactosyl-1-phosphate uridyltransferase causes an error in galactose metabolism called galactosemia, resulting in elevations of galactose in the blood.
Lactose Intolerance can be absorbed into the enterocytes (along with 2 Na+ atoms moving down their concentration gradient) through the
sodium
Sodium
A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23.
Hyponatremia–glucose-linked transporter (SGLT) 1 cotransporter.
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates A class of organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of cn(H2O)n. The largest class of organic compounds, including starch; glycogen; cellulose; polysaccharides; and simple monosaccharides. Basics of Carbohydrates are absorbed as monosaccharides Monosaccharides Single chain carbohydrates that are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are typically colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CNH2NON. Basics of Carbohydrates by the enterocytes in the small intestines and transported via blood to the portal circulation Portal circulation A system of vessels in which blood, after passing through one capillary bed, is conveyed through a second set of capillaries before it returns to the systemic circulation. It pertains especially to the hepatic portal system. Systemic and Special Circulations. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates A class of organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of cn(H2O)n. The largest class of organic compounds, including starch; glycogen; cellulose; polysaccharides; and simple monosaccharides. Basics of Carbohydrates that cannot be broken down into monosaccharides Monosaccharides Single chain carbohydrates that are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are typically colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CNH2NON. Basics of Carbohydrates are not absorbed (e.g., fibers). Monosaccharides Monosaccharides Single chain carbohydrates that are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are typically colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CNH2NON. Basics of Carbohydrates are:
Absorption of
monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
Single chain carbohydrates that are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are typically colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CNH2NON.
Basics of Carbohydrates across enterocytes
SGLT:
sodium
Sodium
A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23.
Hyponatremia–glucose-linked transporter
GLUT
GLUT
Tubular System:
glucose transporter
Glucose transporter
Tubular System
Enzyme | Zymogen (precursor) | Activated by | Notes on activity |
---|---|---|---|
Gastric enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes secreted into the stomach Stomach The stomach is a muscular sac in the upper left portion of the abdomen that plays a critical role in digestion. The stomach develops from the foregut and connects the esophagus with the duodenum. Structurally, the stomach is C-shaped and forms a greater and lesser curvature and is divided grossly into regions: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. Stomach: Anatomy | |||
Pepsin Pepsin Pepsin breaks down proteins into proteoses, peptones, and large polypeptides. Proteins and Peptides | Pepsinogen | Hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid A strong corrosive acid that is commonly used as a laboratory reagent. It is formed by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water. Gastric acid is the hydrochloric acid component of gastric juice. Caustic Ingestion (Cleaning Products) | Most efficient between hydrophobic AAs |
Pancreatic enzymes Enzymes Enzymes are complex protein biocatalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed by them. Due to the body’s constant metabolic needs, the absence of enzymes would make life unsustainable, as reactions would occur too slowly without these molecules. Basics of Enzymes secreted into the duodenum Duodenum The shortest and widest portion of the small intestine adjacent to the pylorus of the stomach. It is named for having the length equal to about the width of 12 fingers. Small Intestine: Anatomy | |||
Trypsin Trypsin A serine endopeptidase that is formed from trypsinogen in the pancreas. It is converted into its active form by enteropeptidase in the small intestine. It catalyzes hydrolysis of the carboxyl group of either arginine or lysine. Proteins and Peptides | Trypsinogen Trypsinogen The inactive proenzyme of trypsin secreted by the pancreas, activated in the duodenum via cleavage by enteropeptidase. Pancreatic Parameters | Enteropeptidase |
|
Chymotrypsin Chymotrypsin A serine endopeptidase secreted by the pancreas as its zymogen, chymotrypsinogen and carried in the pancreatic juice to the duodenum where it is activated by trypsin. It selectively cleaves aromatic amino acids on the carboxyl side. Pancreatic Parameters | Chymotrypsinogen | Trypsin Trypsin A serine endopeptidase that is formed from trypsinogen in the pancreas. It is converted into its active form by enteropeptidase in the small intestine. It catalyzes hydrolysis of the carboxyl group of either arginine or lysine. Proteins and Peptides | Most efficient between hydrophobic AAs |
Carboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase Enzymes that act at a free c-terminus of a polypeptide to liberate a single amino acid residue. Pancreatic Parameters | Procarboxypeptidase | Trypsin Trypsin A serine endopeptidase that is formed from trypsinogen in the pancreas. It is converted into its active form by enteropeptidase in the small intestine. It catalyzes hydrolysis of the carboxyl group of either arginine or lysine. Proteins and Peptides |
|
Elastase Elastase A protease of broad specificity, obtained from dried pancreas. Molecular weight is approximately 25, 000. The enzyme breaks down elastin, the specific protein of elastic fibers, and digests other proteins such as fibrin, hemoglobin, and albumin. Proteins and Peptides | Proelastase | Trypsin Trypsin A serine endopeptidase that is formed from trypsinogen in the pancreas. It is converted into its active form by enteropeptidase in the small intestine. It catalyzes hydrolysis of the carboxyl group of either arginine or lysine. Proteins and Peptides | Same as carboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase Enzymes that act at a free c-terminus of a polypeptide to liberate a single amino acid residue. Pancreatic Parameters |
Transport proteins
Transport proteins
Proteins and Peptides on enterocyte membranes involved in protein absorption:
The Na+/K+ ATPase on the basolateral membrane generates a Na+ gradient within the cell. A Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE) on the apical membrane also generates the H+ gradient. Individual
amino acids
Amino acids
Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (-COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins.
Basics of Amino Acids (AAs; green balls) are absorbed via a Na+/
AA
AA
Amyloidosis cotransporter, where Na+ flows across the apical membrane into the enterocytes down its concentration gradient, bringing the
AA
AA
Amyloidosis with it (despite moving against the chemical
AA
AA
Amyloidosis gradient). Small peptides are absorbed via the H+/PepT cotransporter with H+ flowing down its concentration gradient into the cell, bringing the small peptides with it. Peptides are broken down into individual AAs by peptidases within the enterocytes. All AAs are then absorbed through specialized transporters on the basolateral membrane.
There are 3 primary types of fats Fats The glyceryl esters of a fatty acid, or of a mixture of fatty acids. They are generally odorless, colorless, and tasteless if pure, but they may be flavored according to origin. Fats are insoluble in water, soluble in most organic solvents. They occur in animal and vegetable tissue and are generally obtained by boiling or by extraction under pressure. They are important in the diet (dietary fats) as a source of energy. Energy Homeostasis that are digested and absorbed: TAGs, phospholipids Phospholipids Lipids containing one or more phosphate groups, particularly those derived from either glycerol (phosphoglycerides) or sphingosine (sphingolipids). They are polar lipids that are of great importance for the structure and function of cell membranes and are the most abundant of membrane lipids, although not stored in large amounts in the system. Lipid Metabolism, and cholesterol Cholesterol The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. Cholesterol Metabolism esters. All 3 types contain ester bonds (R1‒(C=O)‒O ‒R2) that are broken during digestion.
TAGs:
Lipase Lipase An enzyme of the hydrolase class that catalyzes the reaction of triacylglycerol and water to yield diacylglycerol and a fatty acid anion. It is produced by glands on the tongue and by the pancreas and initiates the digestion of dietary fats. Malabsorption and Maldigestion catalyzes the hydrolysis Hydrolysis The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water. Proteins and Peptides of ester bonds, resulting in 2 free fatty acids Acids Chemical compounds which yield hydrogen ions or protons when dissolved in water, whose hydrogen can be replaced by metals or basic radicals, or which react with bases to form salts and water (neutralization). An extension of the term includes substances dissolved in media other than water. Acid-Base Balance and a monoglyceride. Red balls represent oxygen molecules.
Image by Lecturio.Phospholipids Phospholipids Lipids containing one or more phosphate groups, particularly those derived from either glycerol (phosphoglycerides) or sphingosine (sphingolipids). They are polar lipids that are of great importance for the structure and function of cell membranes and are the most abundant of membrane lipids, although not stored in large amounts in the system. Lipid Metabolism:
Phospholipase A2 Phospholipase A2 Phospholipases that hydrolyze the Acyl group attached to the 2-position of phosphoglycerides. Nephrotic Syndrome (PLA2) hydrolyzes the bond between the 2nd fatty acid of a phospholipid and the glycerol backbone, resulting in a lysophospholipid and free fatty acid.
Image by Lecturio.Cholesterol Cholesterol The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. Cholesterol Metabolism esters:
Cholesteryl ester hydrolase catalyzes the hydrolysis Hydrolysis The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water. Proteins and Peptides of cholesteryl esters into cholesterol Cholesterol The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. Cholesterol Metabolism and a fatty acid.
Image by Lecturio.Lipid | Enzyme | Products |
---|---|---|
Triacylglycerols Triacylglycerols Fatty Acids and Lipids | Lipases Lipases An enzyme of the hydrolase class that catalyzes the reaction of triacylglycerol and water to yield diacylglycerol and a fatty acid anion. It is produced by glands on the tongue and by the pancreas and initiates the digestion of dietary fats. Lipid Metabolism | Monoglyceride and 2 fatty acids Acids Chemical compounds which yield hydrogen ions or protons when dissolved in water, whose hydrogen can be replaced by metals or basic radicals, or which react with bases to form salts and water (neutralization). An extension of the term includes substances dissolved in media other than water. Acid-Base Balance |
Cholesterol Cholesterol The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. Cholesterol Metabolism esters | Cholesterol Cholesterol The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. Cholesterol Metabolism ester hydrolase | Cholesterol Cholesterol The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. Cholesterol Metabolism and fatty acid |
Phospholipids Phospholipids Lipids containing one or more phosphate groups, particularly those derived from either glycerol (phosphoglycerides) or sphingosine (sphingolipids). They are polar lipids that are of great importance for the structure and function of cell membranes and are the most abundant of membrane lipids, although not stored in large amounts in the system. Lipid Metabolism | Phospholipase A2 Phospholipase A2 Phospholipases that hydrolyze the Acyl group attached to the 2-position of phosphoglycerides. Nephrotic Syndrome | Lysolecithin Lysolecithin Derivatives of phosphatidylcholines obtained by their partial hydrolysis which removes one of the fatty acid moieties. Cholecystitis and a fatty acid |
Substances required for lipase Lipase An enzyme of the hydrolase class that catalyzes the reaction of triacylglycerol and water to yield diacylglycerol and a fatty acid anion. It is produced by glands on the tongue and by the pancreas and initiates the digestion of dietary fats. Malabsorption and Maldigestion activity/digestion of lipids Lipids Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic organic molecules, which include fats, oils, sterols, and waxes. Fatty Acids and Lipids:
Micelles Micelles Particles consisting of aggregates of molecules held loosely together by secondary bonds. The surface of micelles are usually comprised of amphiphatic compounds that are oriented in a way that minimizes the energy of interaction between the micelle and its environment. Liquids that contain large numbers of suspended micelles are referred to as emulsions. Malabsorption and Maldigestion:
As lipids Lipids Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic organic molecules, which include fats, oils, sterols, and waxes. Fatty Acids and Lipids are broken down, they (along with components from the bile Bile An emulsifying agent produced in the liver and secreted into the duodenum. Its composition includes bile acids and salts; cholesterol; and electrolytes. It aids digestion of fats in the duodenum. Gallbladder and Biliary Tract: Anatomy) arrange themselves in structures called micelles Micelles Particles consisting of aggregates of molecules held loosely together by secondary bonds. The surface of micelles are usually comprised of amphiphatic compounds that are oriented in a way that minimizes the energy of interaction between the micelle and its environment. Liquids that contain large numbers of suspended micelles are referred to as emulsions. Malabsorption and Maldigestion:
While the majority of absorption occurs in the small intestine Small intestine The small intestine is the longest part of the GI tract, extending from the pyloric orifice of the stomach to the ileocecal junction. The small intestine is the major organ responsible for chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients. It is divided into 3 segments: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. Small Intestine: Anatomy, some absorption may begin in the stomach Stomach The stomach is a muscular sac in the upper left portion of the abdomen that plays a critical role in digestion. The stomach develops from the foregut and connects the esophagus with the duodenum. Structurally, the stomach is C-shaped and forms a greater and lesser curvature and is divided grossly into regions: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. Stomach: Anatomy.
Long-chain fatty acids Acids Chemical compounds which yield hydrogen ions or protons when dissolved in water, whose hydrogen can be replaced by metals or basic radicals, or which react with bases to form salts and water (neutralization). An extension of the term includes substances dissolved in media other than water. Acid-Base Balance (LCFAs):
Short-chain fatty acids Acids Chemical compounds which yield hydrogen ions or protons when dissolved in water, whose hydrogen can be replaced by metals or basic radicals, or which react with bases to form salts and water (neutralization). An extension of the term includes substances dissolved in media other than water. Acid-Base Balance (SCFAs) and medium-chain fatty acids Acids Chemical compounds which yield hydrogen ions or protons when dissolved in water, whose hydrogen can be replaced by metals or basic radicals, or which react with bases to form salts and water (neutralization). An extension of the term includes substances dissolved in media other than water. Acid-Base Balance (MCFAs):
Schematic diagram depicting
calcium
Calcium
A basic element found in nearly all tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
Electrolytes (
Ca
CA
Condylomata acuminata are a clinical manifestation of genital HPV infection. Condylomata acuminata are described as raised, pearly, flesh-colored, papular, cauliflower-like lesions seen in the anogenital region that may cause itching, pain, or bleeding.
Condylomata Acuminata (Genital Warts)2+) absorption:
Calcium
Calcium
A basic element found in nearly all tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
Electrolytes is absorbed across the apical membrane by a specialized
Ca
CA
Condylomata acuminata are a clinical manifestation of genital HPV infection. Condylomata acuminata are described as raised, pearly, flesh-colored, papular, cauliflower-like lesions seen in the anogenital region that may cause itching, pain, or bleeding.
Condylomata Acuminata (Genital Warts)2+-transport protein and then immediately bound to a
Ca
CA
Condylomata acuminata are a clinical manifestation of genital HPV infection. Condylomata acuminata are described as raised, pearly, flesh-colored, papular, cauliflower-like lesions seen in the anogenital region that may cause itching, pain, or bleeding.
Condylomata Acuminata (Genital Warts)2+-binding protein called
calbindin
Calbindin
Calcium-binding proteins that are found in distal kidney tubules, intestines, brain, and other tissues where they bind, buffer and transport cytoplasmic calcium. Calbindins possess a variable number of ef-hand motifs which contain calcium-binding sites. Some isoforms are regulated by vitamin d.
Calcium Hemostasis and Bone Metabolism.
Calbindin
Calbindin
Calcium-binding proteins that are found in distal kidney tubules, intestines, brain, and other tissues where they bind, buffer and transport cytoplasmic calcium. Calbindins possess a variable number of ef-hand motifs which contain calcium-binding sites. Some isoforms are regulated by vitamin d.
Calcium Hemostasis and Bone Metabolism transports
Ca
CA
Condylomata acuminata are a clinical manifestation of genital HPV infection. Condylomata acuminata are described as raised, pearly, flesh-colored, papular, cauliflower-like lesions seen in the anogenital region that may cause itching, pain, or bleeding.
Condylomata Acuminata (Genital Warts)2+ to the basolateral membrane where it is absorbed by
Ca
CA
Condylomata acuminata are a clinical manifestation of genital HPV infection. Condylomata acuminata are described as raised, pearly, flesh-colored, papular, cauliflower-like lesions seen in the anogenital region that may cause itching, pain, or bleeding.
Condylomata Acuminata (Genital Warts)2+ ATPase and/or a
Ca
CA
Condylomata acuminata are a clinical manifestation of genital HPV infection. Condylomata acuminata are described as raised, pearly, flesh-colored, papular, cauliflower-like lesions seen in the anogenital region that may cause itching, pain, or bleeding.
Condylomata Acuminata (Genital Warts)2+/Na+ exchanger.
Schematic diagram depicting iron Iron A metallic element with atomic symbol fe, atomic number 26, and atomic weight 55. 85. It is an essential constituent of hemoglobins; cytochromes; and iron-binding proteins. It plays a role in cellular redox reactions and in the transport of oxygen. Trace Elements absorption
Image by Lecturio.Fat-soluble vitamins:
Water-soluble vitamins:
Process of CBL (
vitamin B12
Vitamin B12
A cobalt-containing coordination compound produced by intestinal microorganisms and found also in soil and water. Higher plants do not concentrate vitamin B 12 from the soil and so are a poor source of the substance as compared with animal tissues. Intrinsic factor is important for the assimilation of vitamin B 12.
Folate and Vitamin B12) absorption:
Dietary CBL is highly protein bound. In the
stomach
Stomach
The stomach is a muscular sac in the upper left portion of the abdomen that plays a critical role in digestion. The stomach develops from the foregut and connects the esophagus with the duodenum. Structurally, the stomach is C-shaped and forms a greater and lesser curvature and is divided grossly into regions: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus.
Stomach: Anatomy, acid and
pepsin
Pepsin
Pepsin breaks down proteins into proteoses, peptones, and large polypeptides.
Proteins and Peptides
release
Release
Release of a virus from the host cell following virus assembly and maturation. Egress can occur by host cell lysis, exocytosis, or budding through the plasma membrane.
Virology CBL from these dietary
proteins
Proteins
Linear polypeptides that are synthesized on ribosomes and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during protein folding, and the function of the protein.
Energy Homeostasis.
Cobalamin
Cobalamin
A cobalt-containing coordination compound produced by intestinal microorganisms and found also in soil and water. Higher plants do not concentrate vitamin B 12 from the soil and so are a poor source of the substance as compared with animal tissues. Intrinsic factor is important for the assimilation of vitamin B 12.
Folate and Vitamin B12 is bound by haptocorrin; and separately,
parietal cells
Parietal cells
Rounded or pyramidal cells of the gastric glands. They secrete hydrochloric acid and produce gastric intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein that binds vitamin B12.
Stomach: Anatomy
release
Release
Release of a virus from the host cell following virus assembly and maturation. Egress can occur by host cell lysis, exocytosis, or budding through the plasma membrane.
Virology
intrinsic factor
Intrinsic factor
A glycoprotein secreted by the cells of the gastric glands that is required for the absorption of vitamin B 12 (cyanocobalamin). Deficiency of intrinsic factor leads to vitamin B12 deficiency and anemia, pernicious.
Gastritis (IF).
Process of CBL (
vitamin B12
Vitamin B12
A cobalt-containing coordination compound produced by intestinal microorganisms and found also in soil and water. Higher plants do not concentrate vitamin B 12 from the soil and so are a poor source of the substance as compared with animal tissues. Intrinsic factor is important for the assimilation of vitamin B 12.
Folate and Vitamin B12) absorption:
In the
duodenum
Duodenum
The shortest and widest portion of the small intestine adjacent to the pylorus of the stomach. It is named for having the length equal to about the width of 12 fingers.
Small Intestine: Anatomy, pancreatic
proteases
Proteases
Proteins and Peptides degrade haptocorrin and the CBL is now free to
bind
BIND
Hyperbilirubinemia of the Newborn the
intrinsic factor
Intrinsic factor
A glycoprotein secreted by the cells of the gastric glands that is required for the absorption of vitamin B 12 (cyanocobalamin). Deficiency of intrinsic factor leads to vitamin B12 deficiency and anemia, pernicious.
Gastritis (IF).
Process of CBL (
vitamin B12
Vitamin B12
A cobalt-containing coordination compound produced by intestinal microorganisms and found also in soil and water. Higher plants do not concentrate vitamin B 12 from the soil and so are a poor source of the substance as compared with animal tissues. Intrinsic factor is important for the assimilation of vitamin B 12.
Folate and Vitamin B12) absorption:
The IF-CBL complex is absorbed by
endocytosis
Endocytosis
Cellular uptake of extracellular materials within membrane-limited vacuoles or microvesicles. Endosomes play a central role in endocytosis.
The Cell: Cell Membrane in the terminal
ileum
Ileum
The distal and narrowest portion of the small intestine, between the jejunum and the ileocecal valve of the large intestine.
Small Intestine: Anatomy.
Malabsorption Malabsorption General term for a group of malnutrition syndromes caused by failure of normal intestinal absorption of nutrients. Malabsorption and Maldigestion involves many disorders wherein the gut cannot absorb nutrients including water and/or electrolytes Electrolytes Electrolytes are mineral salts that dissolve in water and dissociate into charged particles called ions, which can be either be positively (cations) or negatively (anions) charged. Electrolytes are distributed in the extracellular and intracellular compartments in different concentrations. Electrolytes are essential for various basic life-sustaining functions. Electrolytes from the diet. Maldigestion Maldigestion Malabsorption involves many disorders in which there is an inability of the gut to absorb nutrients from dietary intake, potentially including water and/or electrolytes. A closely related term, maldigestion is the inability to break down large molecules of food into their smaller constituents. Malabsorption and maldigestion can affect macronutrients (fats, proteins, and carbohydrates), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), or both. Malabsorption and Maldigestion is a closely related term, which is the inability of the gut to break down large food molecules into their smaller constituents. Maldigestion Maldigestion Malabsorption involves many disorders in which there is an inability of the gut to absorb nutrients from dietary intake, potentially including water and/or electrolytes. A closely related term, maldigestion is the inability to break down large molecules of food into their smaller constituents. Malabsorption and maldigestion can affect macronutrients (fats, proteins, and carbohydrates), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), or both. Malabsorption and Maldigestion can affect Affect The feeling-tone accompaniment of an idea or mental representation. It is the most direct psychic derivative of instinct and the psychic representative of the various bodily changes by means of which instincts manifest themselves. Psychiatric Assessment macronutrients ( fats Fats The glyceryl esters of a fatty acid, or of a mixture of fatty acids. They are generally odorless, colorless, and tasteless if pure, but they may be flavored according to origin. Fats are insoluble in water, soluble in most organic solvents. They occur in animal and vegetable tissue and are generally obtained by boiling or by extraction under pressure. They are important in the diet (dietary fats) as a source of energy. Energy Homeostasis, proteins Proteins Linear polypeptides that are synthesized on ribosomes and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during protein folding, and the function of the protein. Energy Homeostasis, and carbohydrates Carbohydrates A class of organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of cn(H2O)n. The largest class of organic compounds, including starch; glycogen; cellulose; polysaccharides; and simple monosaccharides. Basics of Carbohydrates), micronutrients (vitamins, minerals Minerals Electrolytes), or both. Malabsorption Malabsorption General term for a group of malnutrition syndromes caused by failure of normal intestinal absorption of nutrients. Malabsorption and Maldigestion and maldigestion Maldigestion Malabsorption involves many disorders in which there is an inability of the gut to absorb nutrients from dietary intake, potentially including water and/or electrolytes. A closely related term, maldigestion is the inability to break down large molecules of food into their smaller constituents. Malabsorption and maldigestion can affect macronutrients (fats, proteins, and carbohydrates), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), or both. Malabsorption and Maldigestion present with weight loss Weight loss Decrease in existing body weight. Bariatric Surgery, diarrhea Diarrhea Diarrhea is defined as ≥ 3 watery or loose stools in a 24-hour period. There are a multitude of etiologies, which can be classified based on the underlying mechanism of disease. The duration of symptoms (acute or chronic) and characteristics of the stools (e.g., watery, bloody, steatorrheic, mucoid) can help guide further diagnostic evaluation. Diarrhea, weakness, and fatigue Fatigue The state of weariness following a period of exertion, mental or physical, characterized by a decreased capacity for work and reduced efficiency to respond to stimuli. Fibromyalgia.