Obstetric imaging refers to imaging of the female reproductive tract and developing fetus during pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care. Ultrasonography is the 1st-line imaging modality during pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care as it does not emit radiation Radiation Emission or propagation of acoustic waves (sound), electromagnetic energy waves (such as light; radio waves; gamma rays; or x-rays), or a stream of subatomic particles (such as electrons; neutrons; protons; or alpha particles). Osteosarcoma; thus, it is the safest option for the developing fetus. Obstetricians depend heavily on ultrasound for the detection, monitoring, and assessment of several maternal and fetal conditions without radiation Radiation Emission or propagation of acoustic waves (sound), electromagnetic energy waves (such as light; radio waves; gamma rays; or x-rays), or a stream of subatomic particles (such as electrons; neutrons; protons; or alpha particles). Osteosarcoma exposure Exposure ABCDE Assessment. For example, congenital Congenital Chorioretinitis fetal anomalies, abnormal placentation, poor fetal growth, and abnormal fluid volumes can all be thoroughly assessed using ultrasound. Radiation-emitting imaging modalities ( X-ray X-ray Penetrating electromagnetic radiation emitted when the inner orbital electrons of an atom are excited and release radiant energy. X-ray wavelengths range from 1 pm to 10 nm. Hard x-rays are the higher energy, shorter wavelength x-rays. Soft x-rays or grenz rays are less energetic and longer in wavelength. The short wavelength end of the x-ray spectrum overlaps the gamma rays wavelength range. The distinction between gamma rays and x-rays is based on their radiation source. Pulmonary Function Tests, CT) are typically reserved for nonobstetric emergency situations.
Last updated: 6 May, 2022
Obstetric imaging refers to imaging of the female reproductive tract and developing fetus during pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care.
There are 2 primary types of obstetric imaging exams:
Several specific types of studies can be performed. All are ultrasound exams and may be either abdominal or transvaginal.
Obstetric imaging is part of routine prenatal care Prenatal care Prenatal care is a systematic and periodic assessment of pregnant women during gestation to assure the best health outcome for the mother and her fetus. Prenatal care prevents and identifies maternal and fetal problems that adversely affect the pregnancy outcome. Prenatal Care, including:
Individuals may present with a number of symptoms in pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care that warrant ultrasound evaluation:
Ultrasound is often used to assist the physician during procedures such as:
Components that should be assessed during all 2nd and 3rd trimester obstetric ultrasounds:
Prior to interpretation of any image, the physician should take certain preparatory steps. The same systematic approach should be followed every time.
Establishing that a pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care is viable requires:
Calculation of the fetal heart rate Heart rate The number of times the heart ventricles contract per unit of time, usually per minute. Cardiac Physiology by ultrasound
Ultrasound image of a 12-week fetus:
The broken yellow line is the crown-rump length measurement.
Biparietal diameter measurement (a component of the growth scan used to help calculate the estimated fetal weight)
Image: “Representative sample of biparietal diameter from Ghana Randomized Air Pollution Pollution The presence of contaminants or pollutant substances in the air (air pollutants) that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce other harmful environmental effects. The substances may include gases; particulate matter; or volatile organic chemicals. Asthma and Health Study (GRAPHS) participant” by Boamah EA. License: CC BY 2.0Femur length (a component of the growth scan used to help calculate the estimated fetal weight)
Image: “Representative sample image of femur length from Ghana Randomized Air Pollution Pollution The presence of contaminants or pollutant substances in the air (air pollutants) that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce other harmful environmental effects. The substances may include gases; particulate matter; or volatile organic chemicals. Asthma and Health Study (GRAPHS) participant” by Boamah EA. License: CC BY 2.0Chorionicity describes whether the fetuses share a chorion Chorion The outermost extraembryonic membrane surrounding the developing embryo. In reptiles and birds, it adheres to the shell and allows exchange of gases between the egg and its environment. In mammals, the chorion evolves into the fetal contribution of the placenta. Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity or amnion Amnion The innermost membranous sac that surrounds and protects the developing embryo which is bathed in the amniotic fluid. Amnion cells are secretory epithelial cells and contribute to the amniotic fluid. Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity. Chorionicity can be established by different ultrasound findings in different types of twins:
Diagram depicting twin chorionicity
Image: “Illustrates various types of chorionicity and amniosity (how the baby’s sac looks) in monozygotic (one egg/identical) twins as a result of when the blastocyst Blastocyst A post-morula preimplantation mammalian embryo that develops from a 32-cell stage into a fluid-filled hollow ball of over a hundred cells. A blastocyst has two distinctive tissues. The outer layer of trophoblasts gives rise to extra-embryonic tissues. The inner cell mass gives rise to the embryonic disc and eventual embryo proper. Fertilization and First Week or embryo Embryo The entity of a developing mammal, generally from the cleavage of a zygote to the end of embryonic differentiation of basic structures. For the human embryo, this represents the first two months of intrauterine development preceding the stages of the fetus. Fertilization and First Week splits.” by Kevin Dufendach. License: CC BY 3.0 Ultrasound picture of trichorionic triplets at 12-weeks
gestational age
Gestational age
The age of the conceptus, beginning from the time of fertilization. In clinical obstetrics, the gestational age is often estimated as the time from the last day of the last menstruation which is about 2 weeks before ovulation and fertilization.
Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care:
Each fetus has their own
chorion
Chorion
The outermost extraembryonic membrane surrounding the developing embryo. In reptiles and birds, it adheres to the shell and allows exchange of gases between the egg and its environment. In mammals, the chorion evolves into the fetal contribution of the placenta.
Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity,
amnion
Amnion
The innermost membranous sac that surrounds and protects the developing embryo which is bathed in the amniotic fluid. Amnion cells are secretory epithelial cells and contribute to the amniotic fluid.
Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity, and
placenta
Placenta
A highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products. It includes a fetal portion (chorionic villi) derived from trophoblasts and a maternal portion (decidua) derived from the uterine endometrium. The placenta produces an array of steroid, protein and peptide hormones (placental hormones).
Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity. The numbers (1‒3) indicate each of the 3 fetuses. Arrowheads show the lambda sign, the triangular portion of tissue leading into the intertwin membrane.
Ultrasound picture of a dichorionic, triamniotic triplets at 13-weeks
gestational age
Gestational age
The age of the conceptus, beginning from the time of fertilization. In clinical obstetrics, the gestational age is often estimated as the time from the last day of the last menstruation which is about 2 weeks before ovulation and fertilization.
Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care:
Arrowhead shows the lambda sign between the 2 chorions. The full arrow shows the T sign between the 2 monochorionic-diamniotic infants. The numbers 1‒3 show the 3 fetuses. Fetus 1 has their own
placenta
Placenta
A highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products. It includes a fetal portion (chorionic villi) derived from trophoblasts and a maternal portion (decidua) derived from the uterine endometrium. The placenta produces an array of steroid, protein and peptide hormones (placental hormones).
Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity, while fetuses 2 and 3 share a
placenta
Placenta
A highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products. It includes a fetal portion (chorionic villi) derived from trophoblasts and a maternal portion (decidua) derived from the uterine endometrium. The placenta produces an array of steroid, protein and peptide hormones (placental hormones).
Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity.
A complete anatomic survey assesses both the maternal reproductive tract and looks for fetal anomalies. Some of the important features evaluated include:
Amniotic fluid Amniotic fluid A clear, yellowish liquid that envelopes the fetus inside the sac of amnion. In the first trimester, it is likely a transudate of maternal or fetal plasma. In the second trimester, amniotic fluid derives primarily from fetal lung and kidney. Cells or substances in this fluid can be removed for prenatal diagnostic tests (amniocentesis). Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity can be assessed in 2 ways:
Numerous abnormalities can be identified on obstetric ultrasound.
Threatened and missed abortions:
Ectopic pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care:
An ectopic pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care is characterized by implantation Implantation Endometrial implantation of embryo, mammalian at the blastocyst stage. Fertilization and First Week outside the uterine cavity. Ultrasound findings include:
Transvaginal ultrasound showing an empty uterus Uterus The uterus, cervix, and fallopian tubes are part of the internal female reproductive system. The uterus has a thick wall made of smooth muscle (the myometrium) and an inner mucosal layer (the endometrium). The most inferior portion of the uterus is the cervix, which connects the uterine cavity to the vagina. Uterus, Cervix, and Fallopian Tubes: Anatomy (left) with endometrial thickening and an echogenic mass Mass Three-dimensional lesion that occupies a space within the breast Imaging of the Breast (right) representing an ectopic pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care adjacent to normal ovarian tissue
Image by Hetal Verma.Molar pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care:
Molar pregnancies are a type of gestational trophoblastic disease Gestational trophoblastic disease Gestational trophoblastic diseases are a spectrum of placental disorders resulting from abnormal placental trophoblastic growth. These disorders range from benign molar pregnancies (complete and partial moles) to neoplastic conditions such as invasive moles and choriocarcinoma. Gestational Trophoblastic Disease that occur due to abnormal fertilization Fertilization To undergo fertilization, the sperm enters the uterus, travels towards the ampulla of the fallopian tube, and encounters the oocyte. The zona pellucida (the outer layer of the oocyte) deteriorates along with the zygote, which travels towards the uterus and eventually forms a blastocyst, allowing for implantation to occur. Fertilization and First Week.
Transvaginal ultrasonography showing a molar pregnancy: The pattern is described as a “cluster of grapes.”
Image: “Molar pregnancy Pregnancy The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth. Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care” by Mikael Häggström. License: CC0 1.0Retained products of conception:
After an abortion Abortion Expulsion of the product of fertilization before completing the term of gestation and without deliberate interference. Spontaneous Abortion (either spontaneous or induced), or postpartum after delivery of the placenta Placenta A highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products. It includes a fetal portion (chorionic villi) derived from trophoblasts and a maternal portion (decidua) derived from the uterine endometrium. The placenta produces an array of steroid, protein and peptide hormones (placental hormones). Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity, tissue may be retained within the uterus Uterus The uterus, cervix, and fallopian tubes are part of the internal female reproductive system. The uterus has a thick wall made of smooth muscle (the myometrium) and an inner mucosal layer (the endometrium). The most inferior portion of the uterus is the cervix, which connects the uterine cavity to the vagina. Uterus, Cervix, and Fallopian Tubes: Anatomy. This phenomenon is known as retained products of conception and can lead to hemorrhage and infection. Ultrasound findings include:
A transvaginal ultrasound demonstrates a heterogeneous echogenic mass Mass Three-dimensional lesion that occupies a space within the breast Imaging of the Breast in the endometrial cavity (black arrow), representing retained products of conception.
Image: “Gray-scale US demonstrates an echogenic mass Mass Three-dimensional lesion that occupies a space within the breast Imaging of the Breast in the endometrial cavity (black arrow)” by Maureen P. Kohi et al AL Amyloidosis. License: CC BY 3.0Nuchal translucency for aneuploidy screening Screening Preoperative Care:
An assessment of the nuchal translucency (or thickness of the nuchal fold at the back of the neck Neck The part of a human or animal body connecting the head to the rest of the body. Peritonsillar Abscess) is a part of common aneuploidy screening tests Screening tests Screening tests are used to identify people in the early stages of a disease and enable early intervention with the goal of reducing morbidity and mortality. Epidemiological Values of Diagnostic Tests.
Nuchal translucency (NT) measurements:
Figure (A) shows a normal fetus (looking up). Figure (B) shows a fetus with
trisomy
Trisomy
The possession of a third chromosome of any one type in an otherwise diploid cell.
Types of Mutations 21 (looking down), demonstrating increased NT thickness.
Congenital Congenital Chorioretinitis anomalies:
Almost any area of the body can develop incorrectly, leading to congenital Congenital Chorioretinitis anomalies. Many of them are visible on ultrasound. Some of the clinically important anomalies and their associated ultrasound findings include:
Ultrasound image of tetralogy of Fallot Tetralogy of Fallot Tetralogy of Fallot is the most common cyanotic congenital heart disease. The disease is the confluence of 4 pathologic cardiac features: overriding aorta, ventricular septal defect, right ventricular outflow obstruction, and right ventricular hypertrophy. Tetralogy of Fallot: This figure demonstrates are large ventricular septal defect Ventricular Septal Defect Tetralogy of Fallot, aortic override, and right ventricular hypertrophy Ventricular Hypertrophy Tetralogy of Fallot, all characteristic findings in tetralogy of Fallot Tetralogy of Fallot Tetralogy of Fallot is the most common cyanotic congenital heart disease. The disease is the confluence of 4 pathologic cardiac features: overriding aorta, ventricular septal defect, right ventricular outflow obstruction, and right ventricular hypertrophy. Tetralogy of Fallot.
Image: “ Tetralogy of Fallot Tetralogy of Fallot Tetralogy of Fallot is the most common cyanotic congenital heart disease. The disease is the confluence of 4 pathologic cardiac features: overriding aorta, ventricular septal defect, right ventricular outflow obstruction, and right ventricular hypertrophy. Tetralogy of Fallot” by North Carolina Children’s Heart Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA. License: CC BY 2.0A 2-dimensional 2-Dimensional Imaging of the Heart and Great Vessels ultrasound showing a meningocele Meningocele A congenital or acquired protrusion of the meninges, unaccompanied by neural tissue, through a bony defect in the skull or vertebral column. Neural Tube Defects, a type of neural tube Neural tube A tube of ectodermal tissue in an embryo that will give rise to the central nervous system, including the spinal cord and the brain. Lumen within the neural tube is called neural canal which gives rise to the central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain. Gastrulation and Neurulation defect
Image: “Two-dimensional ultrasound showing a meningocele Meningocele A congenital or acquired protrusion of the meninges, unaccompanied by neural tissue, through a bony defect in the skull or vertebral column. Neural Tube Defects” by Cavalheiro S et al AL Amyloidosis. License: CC BY 4.0Ultrasound of a fetal omphalocele Omphalocele Omphalocele is a congenital anterior abdominal wall defect in which the intestines are covered by peritoneum and amniotic membranes. The condition results from the failure of the midgut to return to the abdominal cavity by 10 weeks’ gestation. Omphalocele
Image: “Ultrasound of a fetal omphalocele Omphalocele Omphalocele is a congenital anterior abdominal wall defect in which the intestines are covered by peritoneum and amniotic membranes. The condition results from the failure of the midgut to return to the abdominal cavity by 10 weeks’ gestation. Omphalocele” by Agarwal R et al AL Amyloidosis. License: CC BY 3.0Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR):
Hydrops fetalis Hydrops fetalis Abnormal accumulation of serous fluid in two or more fetal compartments, such as skin; pleura; pericardium; placenta; peritoneum; amniotic fluid. General fetal edema may be of non-immunologic origin, or of immunologic origin as in the case of erythroblastosis fetalis. Parvovirus B19:
Ultrasound images of an infant with
hydrops fetalis
Hydrops fetalis
Abnormal accumulation of serous fluid in two or more fetal compartments, such as skin; pleura; pericardium; placenta; peritoneum; amniotic fluid. General fetal edema may be of non-immunologic origin, or of immunologic origin as in the case of erythroblastosis fetalis.
Parvovirus B19:
Axial
Axial
Computed Tomography (CT) (A) and oblique
sagittal
Sagittal
Computed Tomography (CT) (B) images showing fetal
ascites
Ascites
Ascites is the pathologic accumulation of fluid within the peritoneal cavity that occurs due to an osmotic and/or hydrostatic pressure imbalance secondary to portal hypertension (cirrhosis, heart failure) or non-portal hypertension (hypoalbuminemia, malignancy, infection).
Ascites (short white arrow) and floating bowel loops (b);
axial
Axial
Computed Tomography (CT) image of the fetal head (C) showing significant scalp
edema
Edema
Edema is a condition in which excess serous fluid accumulates in the body cavity or interstitial space of connective tissues. Edema is a symptom observed in several medical conditions. It can be categorized into 2 types, namely, peripheral (in the extremities) and internal (in an organ or body cavity).
Edema (long white arrow)
Abnormal placentation:
Abnormal placentation refers to abnormal implantation Implantation Endometrial implantation of embryo, mammalian at the blastocyst stage. Fertilization and First Week of the placenta Placenta A highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products. It includes a fetal portion (chorionic villi) derived from trophoblasts and a maternal portion (decidua) derived from the uterine endometrium. The placenta produces an array of steroid, protein and peptide hormones (placental hormones). Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity. Ultrasound findings may show an abnormal placental location, or show it invading into the uterine wall.
Types of abnormal placentation
Image by Lecturio. License: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0Placental abruption Placental Abruption Premature separation of the normally implanted placenta from the uterus. Signs of varying degree of severity include uterine bleeding, uterine muscle hypertonia, and fetal distress or fetal death. Antepartum Hemorrhage:
Placental abruption Placental Abruption Premature separation of the normally implanted placenta from the uterus. Signs of varying degree of severity include uterine bleeding, uterine muscle hypertonia, and fetal distress or fetal death. Antepartum Hemorrhage refers to the premature Premature Childbirth before 37 weeks of pregnancy (259 days from the first day of the mother’s last menstrual period, or 245 days after fertilization). Necrotizing Enterocolitis separation of the placenta Placenta A highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products. It includes a fetal portion (chorionic villi) derived from trophoblasts and a maternal portion (decidua) derived from the uterine endometrium. The placenta produces an array of steroid, protein and peptide hormones (placental hormones). Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity, leading to maternal-fetal hemorrhage. Ultrasound findings are usually only seen in large abruptions and may include:
Acute
placental abruption
Placental Abruption
Premature separation of the normally implanted placenta from the uterus. Signs of varying degree of severity include uterine bleeding, uterine muscle hypertonia, and fetal distress or fetal death.
Antepartum Hemorrhage:
Note the bulky heterogeneous
placenta
Placenta
A highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products. It includes a fetal portion (chorionic villi) derived from trophoblasts and a maternal portion (decidua) derived from the uterine endometrium. The placenta produces an array of steroid, protein and peptide hormones (placental hormones).
Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity (arrows) in this hypertensive, 29-week
gestational age
Gestational age
The age of the conceptus, beginning from the time of fertilization. In clinical obstetrics, the gestational age is often estimated as the time from the last day of the last menstruation which is about 2 weeks before ovulation and fertilization.
Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care pregnant individual.
Fluid assessment, at least with an SDP, should be part of every obstetric ultrasound. Fluid abnormalities include:
Single deepest vertical pocket of fluid is measured using ultrasound to assess amniotic fluid Amniotic fluid A clear, yellowish liquid that envelopes the fetus inside the sac of amnion. In the first trimester, it is likely a transudate of maternal or fetal plasma. In the second trimester, amniotic fluid derives primarily from fetal lung and kidney. Cells or substances in this fluid can be removed for prenatal diagnostic tests (amniocentesis). Placenta, Umbilical Cord, and Amniotic Cavity volume. Polyhydramnios Polyhydramnios Polyhydramnios is a pathological excess of amniotic fluid. Common causes of polyhydramnios include fetal anomalies, gestational diabetes, multiple gestations, and congenital infections. Patients are often asymptomatic but may present with dyspnea, extremity swelling, or abdominal distention. Polyhydramnios is present in this case (SDP > 8 cm).
Image: “Demonstration of the technique to measure a single vertical pocket of liquor” by Kinare A. License: CC BY 2.0Obstetric imaging outside of ultrasound is of limited utility and confined to very specific indications.
Magnetic resonance imaging findings in a fetus at 23 wga, suggestive of a fetal Chiari II malformation:
a: T2-weighted
sagittal
Sagittal
Computed Tomography (CT) image demonstrating a lumbosacral
neural tube
Neural tube
A tube of ectodermal tissue in an embryo that will give rise to the central nervous system, including the spinal cord and the brain. Lumen within the neural tube is called neural canal which gives rise to the central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain.
Gastrulation and Neurulation defect (encircled) with cerebellar tonsillar
herniation
Herniation
Omphalocele (arrow)
b: T2-weighted
sagittal
Sagittal
Computed Tomography (CT) image demonstrating a myelomeningocele (encircled) from L2 to the end of the
sacrum
Sacrum
Five fused vertebrae forming a triangle-shaped structure at the back of the pelvis. It articulates superiorly with the lumbar vertebrae, inferiorly with the coccyx, and anteriorly with the ilium of the pelvis. The sacrum strengthens and stabilizes the pelvis.
Vertebral Column: Anatomy
c: T2-weighted
axial
Axial
Computed Tomography (CT) image showing the myelomeningocele (encircled)
d: T2-weighted
axial
Axial
Computed Tomography (CT) image demonstrating
hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus
Excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid within the cranium which may be associated with dilation of cerebral ventricles, intracranial.
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Round, left midlung airspace opacity Opacity Imaging of the Lungs and Pleura in an individual reported to have gestational trophoblastic disease Gestational trophoblastic disease Gestational trophoblastic diseases are a spectrum of placental disorders resulting from abnormal placental trophoblastic growth. These disorders range from benign molar pregnancies (complete and partial moles) to neoplastic conditions such as invasive moles and choriocarcinoma. Gestational Trophoblastic Disease
Image: “The appearance of lung metastasis Metastasis The transfer of a neoplasm from one organ or part of the body to another remote from the primary site. Grading, Staging, and Metastasis in patient that was reported” by Ghaemmaghami F. License: CC BY 2.5Obstetric imaging is a critical part of almost all obstetric care.
Complete mole Mole Nevi (singular nevus), also known as “moles,” are benign neoplasms of the skin. Nevus is a non-specific medical term because it encompasses both congenital and acquired lesions, hyper- and hypopigmented lesions, and raised or flat lesions. Nevus/Nevi | Partial mole Mole Nevi (singular nevus), also known as “moles,” are benign neoplasms of the skin. Nevus is a non-specific medical term because it encompasses both congenital and acquired lesions, hyper- and hypopigmented lesions, and raised or flat lesions. Nevus/Nevi | |
---|---|---|
Karyotype Karyotype The full set of chromosomes presented as a systematized array of metaphase chromosomes from a photomicrograph of a single cell nucleus arranged in pairs in descending order of size and according to the position of the centromere. Congenital Malformations of the Female Reproductive System | 46,XX or 46,XY | Triploid (69,XXX, 69, XXY XXY Klinefelter syndrome is a chromosomal aneuploidy characterized by the presence of 1 or more extra X chromosomes in a male karyotype, most commonly leading to karyotype 47,XXY. Klinefelter syndrome is associated with decreased levels of testosterone and is the most common cause of congenital hypogonadism. Klinefelter Syndrome, or 69,XYY) |
Formed from | Enucleated egg and a single sperm | 2 sperm and 1 egg |
Fetal parts | Absent | Present |
Human chorionic gonadotropin levels | ↑↑↑ | ↑ |
Ultrasound findings |
|
Reveals fetal parts |
Malignancy Malignancy Hemothorax risk | Higher risk for choriocarcinoma Choriocarcinoma A malignant metastatic form of trophoblastic tumors. Unlike the hydatidiform mole, choriocarcinoma contains no chorionic villi but rather sheets of undifferentiated cytotrophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts (trophoblasts). It is characterized by the large amounts of chorionic gonadotropin produced. Tissue origins can be determined by DNA analyses: placental (fetal) origin or non-placental origin. Gestational Trophoblastic Disease | Rare |