A volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon, most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. In severe cases, signs of bowel ischemia and gangrene (tachycardia, hypotension, hematochezia, and peritonitis) may also be present. Clinical suspicion prompts imaging to confirm the diagnosis and surgery is the definitive treatment. For stable patients with sigmoid volvulus, surgery may be preceded by endoscopic detorsion. However, immediate surgery is required for colon perforation or ischemia.
A volvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus is the twisting of a segment of bowel on its mesenteryMesenteryA layer of the peritoneum which attaches the abdominal viscera to the abdominal wall and conveys their blood vessels and nerves.Peritoneum: Anatomy, which results in bowel obstructionBowel obstructionAny impairment, arrest, or reversal of the normal flow of intestinal contents toward the anal canal.Ascaris/Ascariasis.
Epidemiology[1–4]
3rd most common cause of large bowel obstructionBowel obstructionAny impairment, arrest, or reversal of the normal flow of intestinal contents toward the anal canal.Ascaris/Ascariasis after cancer and diverticulitisDiverticulitisInflammation of a diverticulum or diverticula.Diverticular Disease
Types of colonic volvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus:
SigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.Volvulus (80%; most common)
Cecal (15%)
Transverse colonTransverse colonThe segment of large intestine between ascending colon and descending colon. It passes from the right colic flexure across the abdomen, then turns sharply at the left colonic flexure into the descending colon.Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy (3%)
Sometimes affects younger patientsPatientsIndividuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures.Clinician–Patient Relationship with colonic dysmotility
Long mesenteryMesenteryA layer of the peritoneum which attaches the abdominal viscera to the abdominal wall and conveys their blood vessels and nerves.Peritoneum: Anatomy with a narrow base to allow twisting
Redundant elongated colonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy usually from chronic constipationConstipationConstipation is common and may be due to a variety of causes. Constipation is generally defined as bowel movement frequency < 3 times per week. Patients who are constipated often strain to pass hard stools. The condition is classified as primary (also known as idiopathic or functional constipation) or secondary, and as acute or chronic. Constipation
Risk factors:
Age (50% of patientsPatientsIndividuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures.Clinician–Patient Relationship > 70 years old)
Institutionalized/nursing home residents
Neurologic disorders (e.g., Parkinson diseaseParkinson diseaseParkinson’s disease (PD) is a chronic, progressive neurodegenerative disorder. Although the cause is unknown, several genetic and environmental risk factors are currently being studied. Individuals present clinically with resting tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability.Parkinson’s Disease, multiple sclerosisSclerosisA pathological process consisting of hardening or fibrosis of an anatomical structure, often a vessel or a nerve.Wilms Tumor)
Previous history of volvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus
High-fiber diet
Chronic constipationConstipationConstipation is common and may be due to a variety of causes. Constipation is generally defined as bowel movement frequency < 3 times per week. Patients who are constipated often strain to pass hard stools. The condition is classified as primary (also known as idiopathic or functional constipation) or secondary, and as acute or chronic. Constipation and laxativeLaxativeAgents that produce a soft formed stool, and relax and loosen the bowels, typically used over a protracted period, to relieve constipation.Hypokalemia abuse
MegacolonMegacolonMegacolon is a severe, abnormal dilatation of the colon, and is classified as acute or chronic. There are many etiologies of megacolon, including neuropathic and dysmotility conditions, severe infections, ischemia, and inflammatory bowel disease.Megacolon (Hirschsprung diseaseHirschsprung DiseaseHirschsprung disease (HD), also known as congenital aganglionosis or congenital megacolon, is a congenital anomaly of the colon caused by the failure of neural crest-derived ganglion cells to migrate into the distal colon. The lack of innervation always involves the rectum and extends proximally and contiguously over variable distances. MHirschsprung Disease, Chagas diseaseChagas diseaseInfection with the protozoan parasite trypanosoma cruzi, a form of trypanosomiasis endemic in central and south america. It is named after the brazilian physician carlos chagas, who discovered the parasite. Infection by the parasite (positive serologic result only) is distinguished from the clinical manifestations that develop years later, such as destruction of parasympathetic ganglia; chagas cardiomyopathy; and dysfunction of the esophagus or colon.Trypanosoma cruzi/Chagas disease)
PregnancyPregnancyThe status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth.Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care
Incomplete dorsal mesenteric fixation of the cecumCecumThe blind sac or outpouching area of the large intestine that is below the entrance of the small intestine. It has a worm-like extension, the vermiform appendix.Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy
Elongated mesenteryMesenteryA layer of the peritoneum which attaches the abdominal viscera to the abdominal wall and conveys their blood vessels and nerves.Peritoneum: Anatomy
Pathophysiology
Colonic volvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus not only leads to luminal occlusion, but it also increases the risk for bowel ischemiaBowel ischemiaMesenteric ischemia is a rare, life-threatening condition caused by inadequate blood flow through the mesenteric vessels, which results in ischemia and necrosis of the intestinal wall. Mesenteric ischemia can be either acute or chronic.Mesenteric Ischemia, gangreneGangreneDeath and putrefaction of tissue usually due to a loss of blood supply.Small Bowel Obstruction, and perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis.[2–4]
Torsion of bowel on its axis leads to closed-loop mechanical bowel obstructionBowel obstructionAny impairment, arrest, or reversal of the normal flow of intestinal contents toward the anal canal.Ascaris/Ascariasis.
Impaired capillary perfusion of bowel → strangulationStrangulationInguinal Canal: Anatomy and Hernias and ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage
Vascular occlusion in the mesenteryMesenteryA layer of the peritoneum which attaches the abdominal viscera to the abdominal wall and conveys their blood vessels and nerves.Peritoneum: Anatomy if torsion is tight enough (> 360° torsion)
Torsion of the mesenteric vascular pedicle → occlusion/thrombosisThrombosisFormation and development of a thrombus or blood clot in the blood vessel.Epidemic Typhus of mesenteric vessels → ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage
Type 2: counterclockwise twisting of the cecumCecumThe blind sac or outpouching area of the large intestine that is below the entrance of the small intestine. It has a worm-like extension, the vermiform appendix.Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy and terminal ileumIleumThe distal and narrowest portion of the small intestine, between the jejunum and the ileocecal valve of the large intestine.Small Intestine: Anatomy (cecumCecumThe blind sac or outpouching area of the large intestine that is below the entrance of the small intestine. It has a worm-like extension, the vermiform appendix.Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy in left upper quadrantLeft upper quadrantAnterior Abdominal Wall: Anatomy)
Type 3Type 3Spinal Muscular Atrophy: cecal bascule (upward folding of cecumCecumThe blind sac or outpouching area of the large intestine that is below the entrance of the small intestine. It has a worm-like extension, the vermiform appendix.Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy rather than twisting)
Constant painPainAn unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons.Pain: Types and Pathways with superimposed colicky episodes
NauseaNauseaAn unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses.Antiemetics, constipationConstipationConstipation is common and may be due to a variety of causes. Constipation is generally defined as bowel movement frequency < 3 times per week. Patients who are constipated often strain to pass hard stools. The condition is classified as primary (also known as idiopathic or functional constipation) or secondary, and as acute or chronic. Constipation
Typically vomitingVomitingThe forcible expulsion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth.Hypokalemia a few days after the onset of painPainAn unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons.Pain: Types and Pathways
Presentation is variableVariableVariables represent information about something that can change. The design of the measurement scales, or of the methods for obtaining information, will determine the data gathered and the characteristics of that data. As a result, a variable can be qualitative or quantitative, and may be further classified into subgroups.Types of Variables:
Severe, constant painPainAn unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons.Pain: Types and Pathways may indicate ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage or perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis.
Accompanying symptoms:
NauseaNauseaAn unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses.Antiemetics and bilious vomitingBilious VomitingCongenital Duodenal Obstruction
ConstipationConstipationConstipation is common and may be due to a variety of causes. Constipation is generally defined as bowel movement frequency < 3 times per week. Patients who are constipated often strain to pass hard stools. The condition is classified as primary (also known as idiopathic or functional constipation) or secondary, and as acute or chronic. Constipation
Chronic constipationConstipationConstipation is common and may be due to a variety of causes. Constipation is generally defined as bowel movement frequency < 3 times per week. Patients who are constipated often strain to pass hard stools. The condition is classified as primary (also known as idiopathic or functional constipation) or secondary, and as acute or chronic. Constipation
Long-term laxativeLaxativeAgents that produce a soft formed stool, and relax and loosen the bowels, typically used over a protracted period, to relieve constipation.Hypokalemia use
Neurologic disorders (e.g., Parkinson’s disease)
Medications affecting bowel motilityMotilityThe motor activity of the gastrointestinal tract.Gastrointestinal Motility (psychotropics, opiatesOpiatesOpiates are drugs that are derived from the sap of the opium poppy. Opiates have been used since antiquity for the relief of acute severe pain. Opioids are synthetic opiates with properties that are substantially similar to those of opiates.Opioid Analgesics)
Physical exam[2–4]
Distended tympanitic abdomen
Can be asymmetrically distended with emptiness on the right or left side
Tenderness to palpationPalpationApplication of fingers with light pressure to the surface of the body to determine consistency of parts beneath in physical diagnosis; includes palpation for determining the outlines of organs.Dermatologic Examination
Signs of ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage or perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis:
Peritoneal signs (guarding, rigidityRigidityContinuous involuntary sustained muscle contraction which is often a manifestation of basal ganglia diseases. When an affected muscle is passively stretched, the degree of resistance remains constant regardless of the rate at which the muscle is stretched. This feature helps to distinguish rigidity from muscle spasticity.Megacolon, rebound tendernessRebound TendernessAcute Abdomen)
TachycardiaTachycardiaAbnormally rapid heartbeat, usually with a heart rate above 100 beats per minute for adults. Tachycardia accompanied by disturbance in the cardiac depolarization (cardiac arrhythmia) is called tachyarrhythmia.Sepsis in Children
HypotensionHypotensionHypotension is defined as low blood pressure, specifically < 90/60 mm Hg, and is most commonly a physiologic response. Hypotension may be mild, serious, or life threatening, depending on the cause. Hypotension
FeverFeverFever is defined as a measured body temperature of at least 38°C (100.4°F). Fever is caused by circulating endogenous and/or exogenous pyrogens that increase levels of prostaglandin E2 in the hypothalamus. Fever is commonly associated with chills, rigors, sweating, and flushing of the skin. Fever
Significant leukocytosisLeukocytosisA transient increase in the number of leukocytes in a body fluid.West Nile Virus may indicate ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage/perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis.
Chemistry:
Frequently normal
HypokalemiaHypokalemiaHypokalemia is defined as plasma potassium (K+) concentration < 3.5 mEq/L. Homeostatic mechanisms maintain plasma concentration between 3.5-5.2 mEq/L despite marked variation in dietary intake. Hypokalemia can be due to renal losses, GI losses, transcellular shifts, or poor dietary intake.Hypokalemia/metabolic alkalosisAlkalosisA pathological condition that removes acid or adds base to the body fluids.Respiratory Alkalosis with protracted vomitingVomitingThe forcible expulsion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth.Hypokalemia
Metabolic acidosisAcidosisA pathologic condition of acid accumulation or depletion of base in the body. The two main types are respiratory acidosis and metabolic acidosis, due to metabolic acid build up.Respiratory Acidosis/elevated lactic acid with ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage/perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis
PregnancyPregnancyThe status during which female mammals carry their developing young (embryos or fetuses) in utero before birth, beginning from fertilization to birth.Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Physiology, and Care test: obtained in all women of childbearing age
Imaging[2–4,6,8]
Upright abdominal X-rayX-rayPenetrating electromagnetic radiation emitted when the inner orbital electrons of an atom are excited and release radiant energy. X-ray wavelengths range from 1 pm to 10 nm. Hard x-rays are the higher energy, shorter wavelength x-rays. Soft x-rays or grenz rays are less energetic and longer in wavelength. The short wavelength end of the x-ray spectrum overlaps the gamma rays wavelength range. The distinction between gamma rays and x-rays is based on their radiation source.Pulmonary Function Tests:
Sigmoid volvulusSigmoid volvulusVolvulus: coffeeCoffeeA beverage made from ground coffee beans (seeds) infused in hot water. It generally contains caffeine and theophylline unless it is decaffeinated.Constipation bean sign (dilated sigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.VolvuluscolonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy projecting to the right upper quadrantRight upper quadrantAnterior Abdominal Wall: Anatomy)
Kidney bean signKidney bean signIt is dilated colon loop extending from right side to mid-abdomen seen on X-rayVolvulus (dilated colonDilated colonMegacolon is a severe, abnormal dilatation of the colon, and is classified as acute or chronic. There are many etiologies of megacolon, including neuropathic and dysmotility conditions, severe infections, ischemia, and inflammatory bowel disease.Megacolon loop extending from right side to mid-abdomen)
Signs of small bowel obstructionBowel obstructionAny impairment, arrest, or reversal of the normal flow of intestinal contents toward the anal canal.Ascaris/Ascariasis (SBOSBOSmall bowel obstruction (SBO) is an interruption of the flow of the intraluminal contents through the small intestine, and is classified as mechanical (due to physical blockage) or functional (due to disruption of normal motility). The most common cause of SBO in the Western countries is post-surgical adhesions. Small bowel obstruction typically presents with nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, distention, constipation, and/or obstipation. Small Bowel Obstruction): distended loops, air-fluid levels
PneumoperitoneumPneumoperitoneumA condition with trapped gas or air in the peritoneal cavity, usually secondary to perforation of the internal organs such as the lung and the gastrointestinal tract, or to recent surgery. Pneumoperitoneum may be purposely introduced to aid radiological examination.Perforated Viscus: indicates perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis
Pathognomonic for volvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus
Indicates twisting of the mesenteryMesenteryA layer of the peritoneum which attaches the abdominal viscera to the abdominal wall and conveys their blood vessels and nerves.Peritoneum: Anatomy
Significant colonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy dilatation with distal decompression and paucity of gas in the rectumRectumThe rectum and anal canal are the most terminal parts of the lower GI tract/large intestine that form a functional unit and control defecation. Fecal continence is maintained by several important anatomic structures including rectal folds, anal valves, the sling-like puborectalis muscle, and internal and external anal sphincters. Rectum and Anal Canal: Anatomy
Signs of ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage:
Pneumatosis intestinalisPneumatosis intestinalisA condition characterized by the presence of multiple gas-filled cysts in the intestinal wall, the submucosa and/or subserosa of the intestine. The majority of the cysts are found in the jejunum and the ileum.Necrotizing Enterocolitis (air in the bowel wall) and portal venous gasPortal Venous GasImaging of the Intestines
Thickened bowel wall (due to loss of venous/lymphatic drainage)
Differential wall enhancements (poor uptake of intravenous (IV) contrast into the wall of the affected bowel)
Free air indicates perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis.
Contrast enema:
Rarely needed for diagnosis
Water-soluble contrast should be used to avoid risk of peritoneal contamination with barium in case of perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis.
Bird’s beak sign is seen at the sigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.Volvulus.
Dye does not pass the twist point in the sigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.VolvuluscolonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy.
Diagnostic in 78%
Cecal volvulusCecal volvulusVolvulus: bird’s beak sign, dye does not enter the small bowelSmall bowelThe small intestine is the longest part of the GI tract, extending from the pyloric orifice of the stomach to the ileocecal junction. The small intestine is the major organ responsible for chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients. It is divided into 3 segments: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.Small Intestine: Anatomy:
Diagnostic in 33%
Abdominal radiography showing a sigmoid volvulus with its characteristic coffee bean appearance
Image: “Sigmoidvolvulus” by Mont4nha. License: CC0
Cecal volvulus: Computed tomography (CT) shows a whirl sign (arrow) and distended cecum (arrowhead) in the upper left abdominal cavity and small bowel
Image: ““Whirl” sign” by Department of Surgery, Kansai Rosai Hospital, Amagasaki, Hyogo, Japan. License: CC BY 4.0
Computed tomography (CT) scout image of cecal volvulus: In the right upper quadrant, an image of a dilated cecum producing the classic kidney bean sign (white arrow). Centrally present within the abdomen, multiple dilated loops of small bowel and, in the distal colon, a paucity of gas (black arrow) are suggestive of a complete intestinal obstruction.
Image: “ “Whirl” sign”” by Department of Surgery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. License: CC BY 2.0
Coffee bean sign (A), whirl sign (B), and bird’s beak sign (C) in the diagnosis of sigmoid volvulus
Image: “Diagnosis of sigmoid volvulus” by Bezmialem Vakif University, Department of Emergency Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey. License: CC BY 2.0
Nasogastric decompression if vomitingVomitingThe forcible expulsion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth.Hypokalemia/signs of SBOSBOSmall bowel obstruction (SBO) is an interruption of the flow of the intraluminal contents through the small intestine, and is classified as mechanical (due to physical blockage) or functional (due to disruption of normal motility). The most common cause of SBO in the Western countries is post-surgical adhesions. Small bowel obstruction typically presents with nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, distention, constipation, and/or obstipation. Small Bowel Obstruction
IV antibiotics for suspected ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage/perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis/signs of sepsisSepsisSystemic inflammatory response syndrome with a proven or suspected infectious etiology. When sepsis is associated with organ dysfunction distant from the site of infection, it is called severe sepsis. When sepsis is accompanied by hypotension despite adequate fluid infusion, it is called septic shock.Sepsis and Septic Shock
For stable patientsStable PatientsBlunt Chest Trauma with no suspicion of ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage or perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis
Flexible or rigid
Rectal tube should be left in place for decompression and prevention of immediate recurrence.
Success rate: 75%–95%
Recurrence: up to 84%
Definitive surgery is recommended unless patient is at very high surgical risk.
SigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.Volvulus colectomy should be considered during the same hospital admission to prevent recurrent volvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus.
Those treated with emergency surgery for recurrent volvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus have a higher morbidityMorbidityThe proportion of patients with a particular disease during a given year per given unit of population.Measures of Health Status rate and risk of bowel ischemiaBowel ischemiaMesenteric ischemia is a rare, life-threatening condition caused by inadequate blood flow through the mesenteric vessels, which results in ischemia and necrosis of the intestinal wall. Mesenteric ischemia can be either acute or chronic.Mesenteric Ischemia.
Decompression should be attempted if feasible prior to surgery:
Converts emergent surgery into elective surgery and allows preoperative planning
Allows for successful primary anastomosis (helps avoid colostomy)
Surgery:[5–8]
Indications:
PeritonitisPeritonitisInflammation of the peritoneum lining the abdominal cavity as the result of infectious, autoimmune, or chemical processes. Primary peritonitis is due to infection of the peritoneal cavity via hematogenous or lymphatic spread and without intra-abdominal source. Secondary peritonitis arises from the abdominal cavity itself through rupture or abscess of intra-abdominal organs.Penetrating Abdominal Injury, signs of ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage/perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis
Unsuccessful endoscopic detorsion
Successful detorsion in patientsPatientsIndividuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures.Clinician–Patient Relationship who are acceptable surgical candidates
Procedures (resection):
SigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.Volvulus colectomy is most effective in preventing recurrences.
Open and laparoscopic approaches are both feasible, depending on surgeon’s expertise.
SigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.Volvulus colectomy with primary anastomosis: stable patientsStable PatientsBlunt Chest Trauma with viable colonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy
SigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.Volvulus colectomy with end colostomy (Hartmann’s procedureHartmann’s procedureA procedure that involves resection of involved colon segment with end colostomyDiverticular Disease): unstable patientsUnstable PatientsBlunt Chest Trauma, perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis, ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage
Procedures (nonresectional):
Higher recurrence rates (inferior to sigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.Volvulus colectomy)
Only for patientsPatientsIndividuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures.Clinician–Patient Relationship with viable colonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy
May be suitable for frail patientsPatientsIndividuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures.Clinician–Patient Relationship with comorbiditiesComorbiditiesThe presence of co-existing or additional diseases with reference to an initial diagnosis or with reference to the index condition that is the subject of study. Comorbidity may affect the ability of affected individuals to function and also their survival; it may be used as a prognostic indicator for length of hospital stay, cost factors, and outcome or survival.St. Louis Encephalitis Virus
Detorsion alone: generally not recommended (highest recurrence)
Detorsion with sigmoidopexy (fixation of sigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.Volvulus)
Detorsion with mesosigmoidoplasty (tailoring of sigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.VolvulusmesenteryMesenteryA layer of the peritoneum which attaches the abdominal viscera to the abdominal wall and conveys their blood vessels and nerves.Peritoneum: Anatomy)
Endoscopic interventions:
Can be offered to poor surgical candidates to reduce recurrences
Percutaneous endoscopic colostomy (PEC)
Sigmoid volvulus (intraoperative view)
Image: “Sigmoid volvulus during surgery” by General Surgery Department, Aga Khan University Hospital, Stadium Road, Karachi 74800, Pakistan. License: CC BY 2.0
Colonoscopic decompression increases the risk of perforationPerforationA pathological hole in an organ, blood vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.Esophagitis and is not performed.
Detorsion and cecopexyCecopexyVolvulus (for viable bowel) +/– cecostomy tube for decompression
Right colectomy with ileostomyIleostomySurgical creation of an external opening into the ileum for fecal diversion or drainage. This replacement for the rectum is usually created in patients with severe inflammatory bowel diseases. Loop (continent) or tube (incontinent) procedures are most often employed.Large Bowel Obstruction (for ischemic/necrotic bowel)
Procedures (nonresectional):
Higher recurrence rates but lower complication rates than resections
Cecostomy carries the morbidityMorbidityThe proportion of patients with a particular disease during a given year per given unit of population.Measures of Health Status of a stoma.
Detorsion alone is associated with higher mortalityMortalityAll deaths reported in a given population.Measures of Health Status and is not recommended.
Open and laparoscopic approaches are acceptable.
PrognosisPrognosisA prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual’s condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations.Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas[1]
Bowel gangreneGangreneDeath and putrefaction of tissue usually due to a loss of blood supply.Small Bowel Obstruction/peritonitisPeritonitisInflammation of the peritoneum lining the abdominal cavity as the result of infectious, autoimmune, or chemical processes. Primary peritonitis is due to infection of the peritoneal cavity via hematogenous or lymphatic spread and without intra-abdominal source. Secondary peritonitis arises from the abdominal cavity itself through rupture or abscess of intra-abdominal organs.Penetrating Abdominal Injury
Advanced age
Coagulopathy
Chronic kidney diseaseChronic Kidney DiseaseChronic kidney disease (CKD) is kidney impairment that lasts for ≥ 3 months, implying that it is irreversible. Hypertension and diabetes are the most common causes; however, there are a multitude of other etiologies. In the early to moderate stages, CKD is usually asymptomatic and is primarily diagnosed by laboratory abnormalities.Chronic Kidney Disease
Acute megacolonAcute megacolonMegacolon/colonic pseudo-obstructionColonic pseudo-obstructionFunctional obstruction of the colon leading to megacolon in the absence of obvious colonic diseases or mechanical obstruction. When this condition is acquired, acute, and coexisting with another medical condition (trauma, surgery, serious injuries or illness, or medication), it is called ogilvie’s syndrome.Imaging of the Intestines: massive dilation of the entire colonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy secondary to a functional problem rather than a mechanical obstructionMechanical ObstructionAny impairment, arrest, or reversal of the normal flow of intestinal contents toward the anal canal.Imaging of the Intestines; usually diagnosed by a combination of clinical history and imaging. Treatment is typically medical management with surgery reserved for advanced cases associated with ischemiaIschemiaA hypoperfusion of the blood through an organ or tissue caused by a pathologic constriction or obstruction of its blood vessels, or an absence of blood circulation.Ischemic Cell Damage and sepsisSepsisSystemic inflammatory response syndrome with a proven or suspected infectious etiology. When sepsis is associated with organ dysfunction distant from the site of infection, it is called severe sepsis. When sepsis is accompanied by hypotension despite adequate fluid infusion, it is called septic shock.Sepsis and Septic Shock.
Toxic megacolonToxic megacolonAn acute form of megacolon, severe pathological dilatation of the colon. It is associated with clinical conditions such as ulcerative colitis; Crohn disease; amebic dysentery; or Clostridium enterocolitis.Megacolon: a complication of infectious or inflammatory colitisColitisInflammation of the colon section of the large intestine, usually with symptoms such as diarrhea (often with blood and mucus), abdominal pain, and fever.Pseudomembranous Colitis.Presentation includes tachycardiaTachycardiaAbnormally rapid heartbeat, usually with a heart rate above 100 beats per minute for adults. Tachycardia accompanied by disturbance in the cardiac depolarization (cardiac arrhythmia) is called tachyarrhythmia.Sepsis in Children, hypotensionHypotensionHypotension is defined as low blood pressure, specifically < 90/60 mm Hg, and is most commonly a physiologic response. Hypotension may be mild, serious, or life threatening, depending on the cause. Hypotension, and massive abdominal distentionAbdominal distentionMegacolon. Diagnosis is based on several symptoms, such as a history of bloody diarrheaBloody diarrheaDiarrhea, feverFeverFever is defined as a measured body temperature of at least 38°C (100.4°F). Fever is caused by circulating endogenous and/or exogenous pyrogens that increase levels of prostaglandin E2 in the hypothalamus. Fever is commonly associated with chills, rigors, sweating, and flushing of the skin. Fever/infection, and CT findings characteristic of toxic megacolonToxic megacolonAn acute form of megacolon, severe pathological dilatation of the colon. It is associated with clinical conditions such as ulcerative colitis; Crohn disease; amebic dysentery; or Clostridium enterocolitis.Megacolon. Management depends on the underlying cause, with surgery reserved for failure of medical management.
Mechanical large bowel obstructionBowel obstructionAny impairment, arrest, or reversal of the normal flow of intestinal contents toward the anal canal.Ascaris/Ascariasis (LBOLBOLarge bowel obstruction is an interruption in the normal flow of intestinal contents through the colon and rectum. This obstruction may be mechanical (due to the actual physical occlusion of the lumen) or functional (due to a loss of normal peristalsis, also known as pseudo-obstruction). Malignancy and volvulus are the most common causes of mechanical large bowel obstruction. Large Bowel Obstruction): interruption of the flowFlowBlood flows through the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins in a closed, continuous circuit. Flow is the movement of volume per unit of time. Flow is affected by the pressure gradient and the resistance fluid encounters between 2 points. Vascular resistance is the opposition to flow, which is caused primarily by blood friction against vessel walls.Vascular Resistance, Flow, and Mean Arterial Pressure of contents through the colonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy. Presentation is similar to the clinical picture and X-rayX-rayPenetrating electromagnetic radiation emitted when the inner orbital electrons of an atom are excited and release radiant energy. X-ray wavelengths range from 1 pm to 10 nm. Hard x-rays are the higher energy, shorter wavelength x-rays. Soft x-rays or grenz rays are less energetic and longer in wavelength. The short wavelength end of the x-ray spectrum overlaps the gamma rays wavelength range. The distinction between gamma rays and x-rays is based on their radiation source.Pulmonary Function Tests findings (dilation of the colonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy) of sigmoid volvulusSigmoid volvulusVolvulus. Definitive diagnosis is established with a CT scan and sometimes colonoscopyColonoscopyEndoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the luminal surface of the colon.Colorectal Cancer Screening. Management usually involves surgical resection to address the cause of the obstruction.
Mechanical small bowel obstructionBowel obstructionAny impairment, arrest, or reversal of the normal flow of intestinal contents toward the anal canal.Ascaris/Ascariasis (SBOSBOSmall bowel obstruction (SBO) is an interruption of the flow of the intraluminal contents through the small intestine, and is classified as mechanical (due to physical blockage) or functional (due to disruption of normal motility). The most common cause of SBO in the Western countries is post-surgical adhesions. Small bowel obstruction typically presents with nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, distention, constipation, and/or obstipation. Small Bowel Obstruction): interruption of the flowFlowBlood flows through the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins in a closed, continuous circuit. Flow is the movement of volume per unit of time. Flow is affected by the pressure gradient and the resistance fluid encounters between 2 points. Vascular resistance is the opposition to flow, which is caused primarily by blood friction against vessel walls.Vascular Resistance, Flow, and Mean Arterial Pressure of contents through the small bowelSmall bowelThe small intestine is the longest part of the GI tract, extending from the pyloric orifice of the stomach to the ileocecal junction. The small intestine is the major organ responsible for chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients. It is divided into 3 segments: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.Small Intestine: Anatomy. Presentation is similar to the clinical picture and some X-rayX-rayPenetrating electromagnetic radiation emitted when the inner orbital electrons of an atom are excited and release radiant energy. X-ray wavelengths range from 1 pm to 10 nm. Hard x-rays are the higher energy, shorter wavelength x-rays. Soft x-rays or grenz rays are less energetic and longer in wavelength. The short wavelength end of the x-ray spectrum overlaps the gamma rays wavelength range. The distinction between gamma rays and x-rays is based on their radiation source.Pulmonary Function Tests findings (small bowel dilationBowel dilationLarge Bowel Obstruction) of cecal volvulusCecal volvulusVolvulus. A definitive diagnosis is established with a CT scan. Nonoperative management is frequently successful. Surgery is reserved for severe clinical presentation and failure of medical management.
Billing and Coding
Diagnosis Codes:
This code is used to diagnose a volvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus, which is a twisting of the intestine that causes a bowel obstructionBowel obstructionAny impairment, arrest, or reversal of the normal flow of intestinal contents toward the anal canal.Ascaris/Ascariasis. It most commonly affects the sigmoidSigmoidA segment of the colon between the rectum and the descending colon.VolvuluscolonColonThe large intestines constitute the last portion of the digestive system. The large intestine consists of the cecum, appendix, colon (with ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments), rectum, and anal canal. The primary function of the colon is to remove water and compact the stool prior to expulsion from the body via the rectum and anal canal. Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy or cecumCecumThe blind sac or outpouching area of the large intestine that is below the entrance of the small intestine. It has a worm-like extension, the vermiform appendix.Colon, Cecum, and Appendix: Anatomy.
Coding System
Code
Description
ICD-10-CM
K56.2
VolvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus
SNOMED CT
40003000
VolvulusVolvulusA volvulus is the twisting or axial rotation of a portion of the bowel around its mesentery. The most common site of volvulus in adults is the colon; most frequently the sigmoid volvulus. Patients typically present with symptoms of bowel obstruction such as abdominal pain, distension, vomiting, and constipation/obstipation. Volvulus (disorder)
Evaluation & Workup:
An abdominal X-ray is a key initial diagnostic tool, often revealing a characteristic “coffee bean” sign in a sigmoid volvulusSigmoid volvulusVolvulus. A CT scan can provide more definitive details about the location and severity.
Coding System
Code
Description
CPT
74022
Radiologic examination, abdomen; 2 views
Procedures/Interventions:
This code is for a flexible sigmoidoscopySigmoidoscopyEndoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the sigmoid flexure.Colorectal Cancer Screening, which can be used both to diagnose and to therapeutically decompress (untwist) a sigmoid volvulusSigmoid volvulusVolvulus. Surgical resection is often required to prevent recurrence.
Halabi W.J., Jafari M.D., Kang C.Y., Nguyen V.Q., Carmichael J.C., Mills S., et al. (2014). Colonic volvulus in the United States: trends, outcomes, and predictors of mortality. Ann Surg.
Williams, N., Bulstrode, C. H. (2013). Bailey and Love’s Short Practice of Surgery (26th ed., pp. 1181–1198).
Vogel, J. D., Feingold, D. L., Stewart, D. B., et al. (2016). Clinical practice guidelines for colon volvulus and acute colonic pseudo-obstruction. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum, 59, 589–600.
Miller, A. S., Boyce, K., Box, B., et al. (2021). The Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland consensus guidelines in emergency colorectal surgery.Colorectal Disease, 23(2), 476–547.
Alavi, K., Poylin, V., Davids, J. S., Patel, S. V., Felder, S., Valente, M. A., Paquette, I. M., Feingold, D. L. (2021). The American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons clinical practice guidelines for the management of colonic volvulus and acute colonic pseudo-obstruction. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum, 64(9), 1046–1057. https://doi.org/10.1097/DCR.0000000000002159
Create your free account or log in to continue reading!