Overview

Immune system: definition

The immune system provides defense (immunity) against invading pathogens ranging from viruses to parasites. The components of the system are interconnected by blood and the lymphatic circulation.

2 lines of defense (that overlap):

• Innate immunity (which is nonspecific) 
• Adaptive immunity (based on specific antigen recognition):
  • Cell-mediated immunity: adaptive response in the cells/tissues involving the T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells
  • Humoral immunity: adaptive response in the fluids (humors) involving B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells and immunoglobulins Immunoglobulins Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins

Innate vs. adaptive immunity

Components of the Adaptive Immune System

Responding to microbial invaders is the responsibility of the immune system. Often, the innate immune system Innate immune system Innate immunity, the 1st protective layer of defense, is a system that recognizes threatening microbes, distinguishes self-tissues from pathogens, and subsequently eliminates the foreign invaders. The response is nonspecific and uses different layers of protection: barriers such as the skin, pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) as well as circulating proteins, and immune cells that help eliminate the microbe. Cells of the Innate Immune System has the capability to contain the pathogens, but invaders have evolved means to evade innate immunity. The next line of defense is the adaptive immune system.

Adaptive immune system: definition

• Composed of lymphocytes Lymphocytes Lymphocytes are heterogeneous WBCs involved in immune response. Lymphocytes develop from the bone marrow, starting from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and progressing to common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs). B and T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells arise from the lineage. Lymphocytes (T helper cells, cytotoxic T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells) and secreted proteins ( antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins produced by B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells)
• Functionality takes days, but once engaged, repeat encounters with the offending agent elicits a faster response.
• The components, B and T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells, have:
  • Diversity: respond to millions of antigens
  • Specificity: immune response tailored to the specific antigen
  • Memory: can respond many years later

Cell-mediated immunity

• Primary effectors: T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells
  • CD4+ T (helper) cells: Different subsets perform multiple functions (including cytokine production, activation of macrophages).
  • CD8+ T (cytotoxic) cells: defend against intracellular bacteria Bacteria Bacteria are prokaryotic single-celled microorganisms that are metabolically active and divide by binary fission. Some of these organisms play a significant role in the pathogenesis of diseases. Bacteriology: Overview and viruses via destruction of infected cells. 
  • Memory T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells: respond to antigen reexposure
• Other components:
  • T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells are dependent on cytokines (soluble proteins released by different cells, which play overlapping roles in both innate and adaptive immunity).
  • Several cells (dendritic cells, macrophages) in the innate immune system Innate immune system Innate immunity, the 1st protective layer of defense, is a system that recognizes threatening microbes, distinguishes self-tissues from pathogens, and subsequently eliminates the foreign invaders. The response is nonspecific and uses different layers of protection: barriers such as the skin, pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) as well as circulating proteins, and immune cells that help eliminate the microbe. Cells of the Innate Immune System present antigens to the T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells.

Humoral adaptive immunity

• Antibody-mediated immunity
• B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells:
  • Differentiate into plasma cells, producing antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins (through the help of T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells)
  • Differentiate into memory cells, briskly responding to reinfection
  • Act as antigen-presenting cells to T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells (expressing MHC II)
• Antibodies, along with complement, help the cells of the innate system against extracellular, encapsulated bacteria Bacteria Bacteria are prokaryotic single-celled microorganisms that are metabolically active and divide by binary fission. Some of these organisms play a significant role in the pathogenesis of diseases. Bacteriology: Overview.
• Antibodies can neutralize toxins, such as tetanus Tetanus Tetanus is a bacterial infection caused by Clostridium tetani, a gram-positive obligate anaerobic bacterium commonly found in soil that enters the body through a contaminated wound. C. tetani produces a neurotoxin that blocks the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters and causes prolonged tonic muscle contractions. Tetanus toxin, and viruses.

B Cells in the Immune System

Activated B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells

• Differentiate into:
  • Plasma cells: 
    • Produce thousands of antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins 
    • Migrate to the bone marrow Bone marrow Bone marrow, the primary site of hematopoiesis, is found in the cavities of cancellous bones and the medullary canals of long bones. There are 2 types: red marrow (hematopoietic with abundant blood cells) and yellow marrow (predominantly filled with adipocytes). Composition of Bone Marrow
  • Memory cells:
    • React to antigenic stimulation (in response to reinfection)
    • Generate plasma cells which have high affinity antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins in secondary immune responses
• Cell surface markers:
  • Ig
  • CD19, CD20, CD21 (important receptor for Epstein-Barr virus Epstein-Barr Virus Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a linear, double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the Herpesviridae family. This highly prevalent virus is mostly transmitted through contact with oropharyngeal secretions from an infected individual. The virus can infect epithelial cells and B lymphocytes, where it can undergo lytic replication or latency. Epstein-Barr Virus), CD40
  • B7

Immune responses

• Primary immune response:
  • 1st encounter of the host with the antigen, with B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells activated and eventually plasma cells producing antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins
  • Antibodies are detected in the serum within 7 to 10 days.
    • IgM: 1st antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins to appear, then a decline is noted
    • Followed by other antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins ( e.g., IgG, IgA) as class switching takes place
  • Protection against invasive pathogens is slow and partially efficient.
• Secondary immune response:
  • Follows activation of memory B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells
  • Faster and more effective in suppressing the infection progress 
  • Memory B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells, having undergone affinity maturation in the primary response, produce abundant antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins with increased antigen-binding affinities 
  • IgM and IgG appear in less time, with IgG rising faster and in greater amounts than in the primary immune response.

Antibodies

Immunoglobulin (Ig)

• Glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens
• General components: 
  • 2 identical heavy and 2 identical light chains (referring to their molecular weight)
  • Disulfide bonds link the heavy chains to the light chains (forming a Y-shaped molecule)
  • Hinge region (confers flexibility)
  • Carbohydrate moieties (usually associated with the constant region)
• The heavy chains (μ, δ, γ, α, or ε) are disulfide-linked to light chains (κ or λ).
• Regions:
  • Variable region (antigen-binding)
    • The amino acid Amino acid Amino acids (AAs) are composed of a central carbon atom attached to a carboxyl group, an amino group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R group). Basics of Amino Acids sequence at the tips of the “Y,” which includes ends of both light and heavy chains
    • Has hypervariable region or complementarity-determining region (CDR) at each amino-terminal
    • The CDR provides antigen specificity, as it is complementary in structure to the antigenic determinant (epitope).
  • Constant region (effector functions)
    • Constitutes the remaining polypeptide
    • Binds Fc receptors and complement
• Fragments (determined by location where the enzyme papain, splits the Ig):
  • Fab (fragment antigen-binding):
    • Contains the variable Variable Variables represent information about something that can change. The design of the measurement scales, or of the methods for obtaining information, will determine the data gathered and the characteristics of that data. As a result, a variable can be qualitative or quantitative, and may be further classified into subgroups. Types of Variables regions and parts of the constant region of both heavy and light chains
    • Interacts with the antigen
  • Fc (fragment crystallizable):
    • The remaining part (tail) of the antibody (heavy chain only)
    • Constant region, Carbohydrate moieties
    • Complement binding
    • Confers Ig isotype (e.g., IgM, IgA)
• The heavy chain makeup (constant region and Fc) determines the Ig class/isotype: 
  • μ: IgM
  • δ: IgD
  • γ: IgG
  • α: IgA
  • ε: IgE

Properties

• Antibody diversity achieved by:
  • Multiple heavy and light chain segments
  • Rearrangements of the gene segments of the chains
  • Junctional diversity (addition or removal of nucleotides)
  • Combinatorial diversity (random combination of heavy and light chains)
  • Somatic hypermutation
• Specificity achieved by:
  • Somatic hypermutation → affinity maturation ( variable Variable Variables represent information about something that can change. The design of the measurement scales, or of the methods for obtaining information, will determine the data gathered and the characteristics of that data. As a result, a variable can be qualitative or quantitative, and may be further classified into subgroups. Types of Variables region)
  • Class switching (constant region)

Functions

Protection against infectious agents and their products by:

• Neutralization of toxins and the infectivity of the pathogens: 
  • Utilizes the antibody’s Fab, which forms highly specific binding to the target
  • Binding prevents pathogen adherence.
• Complement activation causing cell lysis and inflammation Inflammation Inflammation is a complex set of responses to infection and injury involving leukocytes as the principal cellular mediators in the body's defense against pathogenic organisms. Inflammation is also seen as a response to tissue injury in the process of wound healing. The 5 cardinal signs of inflammation are pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Inflammation
• Opsonization (with or without complement), promoting phagocytosis
• Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC): Immune cells are stimulated through Fc receptors, causing lysis of target cells.
• Clearance of immune complexes:
  • Antigen/antibody complexes activate the complement system (antibody Fc regions in IgM and IgG bind C1q).
  • RBCs recognize these complexes, transporting them to the liver Liver The liver is the largest gland in the human body. The liver is found in the superior right quadrant of the abdomen and weighs approximately 1.5 kilograms. Its main functions are detoxification, metabolism, nutrient storage (e.g., iron and vitamins), synthesis of coagulation factors, formation of bile, filtration, and storage of blood. Liver and spleen Spleen The spleen is the largest lymphoid organ in the body, located in the LUQ of the abdomen, superior to the left kidney and posterior to the stomach at the level of the 9th-11th ribs just below the diaphragm. The spleen is highly vascular and acts as an important blood filter, cleansing the blood of pathogens and damaged erythrocytes. Spleen for phagocytosis.

Clinical Relevance

• X-linked agammaglobulinemia X-linked agammaglobulinemia X-linked agammaglobulinemia, also known as Bruton's agammaglobulinemia or Bruton's disease, is a rare, recessive genetic disorder characterized by the improper development of B cells, leading to a lack of mature B cells capable of responding to stimulation by cell-mediated immune responses or certain antigen-presenting cells. X-linked Agammaglobulinemia: results from mutations in the X chromosome gene encoding for Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK), which is essential for B cell development and maturation. The disease is characterized by an absence of B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells leading to recurrent infections, primarily by encapsulated bacteria Bacteria Bacteria are prokaryotic single-celled microorganisms that are metabolically active and divide by binary fission. Some of these organisms play a significant role in the pathogenesis of diseases. Bacteriology: Overview and viruses, involving the lungs Lungs Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO2. Lungs, sinuses, and skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Structure and Function of the Skin as well as the CNS. Treatment involves administration of immune globulin.
• Common variable Variable Variables represent information about something that can change. The design of the measurement scales, or of the methods for obtaining information, will determine the data gathered and the characteristics of that data. As a result, a variable can be qualitative or quantitative, and may be further classified into subgroups. Types of Variables immunodeficiency (CVID): characterized by phenotypically normal B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells that cannot produce antibodies Antibodies Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins. Common variable Variable Variables represent information about something that can change. The design of the measurement scales, or of the methods for obtaining information, will determine the data gathered and the characteristics of that data. As a result, a variable can be qualitative or quantitative, and may be further classified into subgroups. Types of Variables immunodeficiency may be associated with several molecular defects that affect antibody production. The disease manifests in adults with recurrent sinopulmonary infections. The treatment is immune globulin replacement therapy.
• Hyper-IgM syndrome Hyper-IgM syndrome The hyperimmunoglobulin M (hyper-IgM) syndrome, is a group of rare inherited immunodeficiency disorders characterized by low or absent serum levels of IgA, IgG, and IgE and normal or elevated levels of IgM. Hyper-IgM syndrome is most commonly caused by X-linked mutations in the CD40 ligand gene, which results in abnormal signaling between B and T lymphocytes. Hyper-IgM Syndrome: a heterogeneous group of conditions that can be of X-linked or autosomal recessive Autosomal recessive Autosomal inheritance, both dominant and recessive, refers to the transmission of genes from the 22 autosomal chromosomes. Autosomal recessive diseases are only expressed when 2 copies of the recessive allele are inherited. Autosomal Recessive and Autosomal Dominant Inheritanceinheritance. The X-linked forms are characterized by defective helper T cells T cells T cells, also called T lymphocytes, are important components of the adaptive immune system. Production starts from the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, from which T-cell progenitor cells arise. These cells migrate to the thymus for further maturation. T Cells that cannot activate B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells to effect class-switch recombination. As a result, B cells B cells B lymphocytes, also known as B cells, are important components of the adaptive immune system. In the bone marrow, the hematopoietic stem cells go through a series of steps to become mature naive B cells. The cells migrate to secondary lymphoid organs for activation and further maturation. B Cells produce only IgM, while other immunoglobulins Immunoglobulins Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells that act in immune responses by recognizing and binding particular antigens. The various Ig classes are IgG (the most abundant), IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgA, which differ in their biologic features, structure, target specificity, and distribution. Immunoglobulins, such as IgG, IgA, and IgE, are deficient. The patients present with neutropenia Neutropenia Neutrophils are an important component of the immune system and play a significant role in the eradication of infections. Low numbers of circulating neutrophils, referred to as neutropenia, predispose the body to recurrent infections or sepsis, though patients can also be asymptomatic. Neutropenia and recurrent sinopulmonary infections from childhood, and they are susceptible to Pneumocystis jiroveci Pneumocystis jiroveci Pneumocystis jiroveci is a yeast-like fungus causing pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in immunocompromised patients. Pneumocystis pneumonia is spread through airborne transmission and classically affects patients with AIDS, functioning as an AIDS-defining illness. Patients may present with insidious onset of fever, chills, dry cough, chest pain, and shortness of breath. Pneumocystis jiroveci/Pneumocystis Pneumonia (PCP) pneumonia Pneumonia Pneumonia or pulmonary inflammation is an acute or chronic inflammation of lung tissue. Causes include infection with bacteria, viruses, or fungi. In more rare cases, pneumonia can also be caused through toxic triggers through inhalation of toxic substances, immunological processes, or in the course of radiotherapy. Pneumonia and Cryptosporidium infections. Autosomal recessive forms are characterized by much higher IgM levels. There is a propensity for autoimmunity Autoimmunity Autoimmunity is a pathologic immune response toward self-antigens, resulting from a combination of factors: immunologic, genetic, and environmental. The immune system is equipped with self-tolerance, allowing immune cells such as T cells and B cells to recognize self-antigens and to not mount a reaction against them. Defects in this mechanism, along with environmental triggers (such as infections) and genetic susceptibility factors (most notable of which are the HLA genes) can lead to autoimmune diseases. Autoimmunity and development of B cell lymphomas. Hyper-IgM syndrome Hyper-IgM syndrome The hyperimmunoglobulin M (hyper-IgM) syndrome, is a group of rare inherited immunodeficiency disorders characterized by low or absent serum levels of IgA, IgG, and IgE and normal or elevated levels of IgM. Hyper-IgM syndrome is most commonly caused by X-linked mutations in the CD40 ligand gene, which results in abnormal signaling between B and T lymphocytes. Hyper-IgM Syndrome may also be secondary to congenital rubella Rubella Rubella (also known as German measles or three-day measles) is caused by a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus of the Togaviridae family. Rubella only infects humans and spreads prenatally via vertical transmission or postnatally via droplet contact. Congenital rubella is associated with a classic triad of symptoms: cataracts, cardiac defects, and deafness. Infection in children and adults may be mild and present with constitutional symptoms along with a viral exanthem. Rubella Virus syndrome and medications such as phenytoin. Treatment includes immune globulin replacement therapy and prophylactic antibiotics.
• Hyper-IgD syndrome (HIDS): autosomal recessive Autosomal recessive Autosomal inheritance, both dominant and recessive, refers to the transmission of genes from the 22 autosomal chromosomes. Autosomal recessive diseases are only expressed when 2 copies of the recessive allele are inherited. Autosomal Recessive and Autosomal Dominant Inheritancedisorder associated with mutations in the gene coding mevalonate kinase, an enzyme participating in cholesterol synthesis. The disease manifests in childhood with recurrent episodes of chills and fever Fever Fever is defined as a measured body temperature of at least 38°C (100.4°F). Fever is caused by circulating endogenous and/or exogenous pyrogens that increase levels of prostaglandin E2 in the hypothalamus. Fever is commonly associated with chills, rigors, sweating, and flushing of the skin. Fever, abdominal pain Pain Pain has accompanied humans since they first existed, first lamented as the curse of existence and later understood as an adaptive mechanism that ensures survival. Pain is the most common symptomatic complaint and the main reason why people seek medical care. Physiology of Pain, vomiting or diarrhea Diarrhea Diarrhea is defined as ≥ 3 watery or loose stools in a 24-hour period. There are a multitude of etiologies, which can be classified based on the underlying mechanism of disease. The duration of symptoms (acute or chronic) and characteristics of the stools (e.g., watery, bloody, steatorrheic, mucoid) can help guide further diagnostic evaluation. Diarrhea, headache, and arthralgias. Physical signs include cervical lymphadenopathy Lymphadenopathy Lymphadenopathy is lymph node enlargement (> 1 cm) and is benign and self-limited in most patients. Etiologies include malignancy, infection, and autoimmune disorders, as well as iatrogenic causes such as the use of certain medications. Generalized lymphadenopathy often indicates underlying systemic disease. Lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly Splenomegaly Splenomegaly is pathologic enlargement of the spleen that is attributable to numerous causes, including infections, hemoglobinopathies, infiltrative processes, and outflow obstruction of the portal vein. Splenomegaly, arthritis, skin Skin The skin, also referred to as the integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body. The skin is primarily composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (deep layer). The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes that undergo rapid turnover, while the dermis contains dense layers of connective tissue. Structure and Function of the Skin lesions and orogenital aphthous ulcers. Serum levels of IgD are typically very high, although occasionally they may occasionally be within normal limits. Interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) antagonists, NSAIDs, and corticosteroids are used therapeutically. Febrile episodes tend to become less frequent in adulthood.