Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins

Fatty acid metabolism includes the processes of either breaking down fatty acids to generate energy (catabolic) or creating fatty acids for storage or use (anabolic). Besides being a source of energy, fatty acids can also be utilized for cellular membranes or signaling molecules. Synthesis and beta oxidation are almost the reverse of each other, and special reactions are required for variations (unsaturated fatty acids, very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs)). Synthesis occurs in the cell cytoplasm, while oxidation occurs in mitochondria. Shuttling across membranes within a cell requires additional processes, such as the citrate and carnitine shuttles. In certain physiologic states, an increase in fatty acid oxidation can lead to the production of ketone bodies, which can also be utilized as an energy source, particularly in the brain and muscles.

Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic organic molecules, which include fats, oils, sterols, and waxes. Fatty acids are integral building blocks of lipids, and can be classified as unsaturated or saturated based on the presence/absence of carbon-carbon double bonds within their nonpolar chains. Eicosanoids are a family of cell-signaling molecules with important physiologic properties derived from the fatty acid, arachadonic acid. In addition, combining fatty acids with different bases, including glycerol, phosphate, and shingosine, results in different lipids with varied functions within the human body. Glycerolipids (triacylglycerols) are important for energy storage and thermal insulation. Glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids are essential constituents of cellular plasma membranes. Another group of lipids is based off of isoprenoids, which are the building blocks of sterols (such as cholesterol). Altered levels of lipids (both an overabundance or deficiency) can result in many potential disease processes.

Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed and stored in adipose tissue (fat) and the liver. These vitamins can be released from storage and used when necessary. The 4 important fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Each vitamin has its own function, and deficiencies can lead to significant clinical manifestations. Diagnosis of deficiencies is by clinical presentation and lab testing, and management of vitamin deficiency is with supplementation. Because these vitamins are fat-soluble and stored in the body, overuse of supplemental vitamins may lead to toxicity and adverse effects, especially with vitamins A and D.

Lipid metabolism is the processing of lipids for energy use, energy storage, and structural component production. Lipid metabolism uses fats from dietary sources or from fat stores in the body. A complex series of processes involving digestion, absorption, and transport are required for the proper metabolism of lipids. Triacylglycerols are transported in body fluids by molecules called lipoproteins. Within the GI tract, metabolism of triacylglycerols may occur, facilitated by a group of enzymes called lipases. This process relies on preprocessing to make hydrophobic lipids soluble in order to accommodate hydrolysis and further processing.