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Hyponatremia is defined as a decreased serum sodium (sNa+) concentration less than 135 mmol/L. Serum sodium is the greatest contributor to plasma osmolality, which is very tightly controlled via antidiuretic hormone (ADH) release from the hypothalamus and by the thirst mechanism. The basic pathophysiology of all etiologies of hyponatremia is an abnormal increase in total body water (TBW), which dilutes the total body sodium (TBNa+) concentration. The clinical presentation varies greatly, from asymptomatic to subtle cognitive deficits, seizures, and death. Management is guided by etiology, acuity, and duration of symptoms, usually involving oral fluid restriction or administration of IV fluids that contain Na. Sodium must be replaced slowly, as overly rapid correction of hyponatremia can lead to irreversible neurologic complications and death, known as the osmotic demyelination syndrome (ODS).

Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis

Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) is a rare autoimmune disease of unknown etiology. It leads to a necrotizing granulomatous inflammation of small and medium-sized blood vessels of the nose, sinuses, throat, lungs, and kidneys. Early stages of GPA often present with localized manifestations such as infections of the upper respiratory tract, skin lesions, and/or constitutional symptoms. Later stages can present with renal failure and severe respiratory disease. Early diagnosis and treatment of granulomatosis with polyangiitis (which involves the administration of corticosteroids and immunosuppressive agents such as methotrexate) may lead to a full remission but without treatment, the condition has a high mortality rate.

Fibromuscular Dysplasia

Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) is a nonatherosclerotic, noninflammatory, medium-sized angiopathy due to fibroplasia of the vessel wall. The condition leads to complications related to arterial stenosis, aneurysm, or dissection. The clinical presentation can differ depending on which arteries are affected, but may include secondary hypertension from renal artery stenosis (RAS), neurologic deficits from cerebrovascular involvement, claudication due to limb involvement, and intestinal angina from mesenteric artery disease. The diagnosis is confirmed with imaging, such as computed tomography with angiography. Treatment includes lifestyle modifications, antihypertensive therapy for RAS patients, and potential revascularization.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a condition indicating an increase in the number of stromal and epithelial cells within the prostate gland (transition zone). Benign prostatic hyperplasia is common in men > 50 years of age and may greatly affect their quality of life. The development of BPH involves modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors, which lead to anatomic obstruction and downstream effects on other organ systems. Clinically, patients present with a combination of obstructive and bladder storage symptoms. Diagnosis is made by determining the severity of voiding symptoms through a variety of non-invasive (voiding diary, history, physical examination) and invasive (cystoscopy, urodynamics, transrectal ultrasound imaging) tools. Treatment is multimodal with medical and surgical components (prostatectomy) utilized in combination.

IgA Nephropathy

IgA nephropathy (Berger's disease) is a renal disease characterized by IgA deposition in the mesangium. It is the most common cause of primary glomerulonephritis in most developed countries. Patients frequently present in the second and third decades of life and, historically, with a preceding upper respiratory or GI infection. Common presenting features are gross hematuria or asymptomatic, microscopic hematuria on urinalysis. The course is often benign, with the definitive diagnostic procedure, renal biopsy, performed only in cases of severe, progressive renal disease. Treatment depends on the severity of proteinuria, renal function, and pathologic changes. ACE inhibitors or angiotensin-receptor blockers (ARBs) are given to reduce disease progression. Persistent proteinuria and increasing creatinine are indications for immunosuppressive therapy that includes glucocorticoids and, possibly, cytotoxic agents.

Amyloidosis

Amyloidosis is a disease caused by abnormal extracellular tissue deposition of fibrils composed of various misfolded low-molecular-weight protein subunits. These proteins are frequently byproducts of other pathological processes (e.g., multiple myeloma). These misfolded proteins can become deposited in different tissues, interfere with normal organ functions, and cause tissue-specific diseases (e.g., renal amyloidosis causes proteinuria). Diagnosis is established clinically and confirmed with tissue biopsy. Treatment should be directed toward the underlying cause and the reduction of amyloid deposition.

Overview and Types of Dialysis

In the context of acute or chronic kidney failure, renal function may diminish to a point at which it is no longer able to adequately support life. When this happens, renal replacement therapy is indicated. Renal replacement therapy refers to dialysis and/or kidney transplantation. Dialysis is a procedure by which toxins and excess water are removed from the circulation. Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis (PD) are the two types of dialysis, and their primary difference is the location of the filtration process (external to the body in hemodialysis versus inside the body for PD).

Hyperaldosteronism

Hyperaldosteronism is defined as the increased secretion of aldosterone from the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex. Hyperaldosteronism may be primary (resulting from autonomous secretion), or secondary (resulting from physiological secretion due to stimulation of the RAAS). Classically, hyperaldosteronism presents with hypertension, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis, although recent studies have suggested that hypokalemia is less common than originally thought in primary hyperaldosteronism. Patients with hypertension who are treatment resistant and/or associated with hyperkalemia should be screened for hyperaldosteronism by determining their plasma aldosterone concentration and plasma renin activity. Confirmatory tests and an abdominal CT scan are required to conclusively diagnose primary hyperaldosteronism. Management involves the use of aldosterone receptor antagonists and surgical excision of any aldosterone-secreting tumors.

Renal Potassium Regulation

Potassium is the main intracellular cation in all cells and is distributed unevenly between the intracellular fluid (98%) and extracellular fluid (2%). This large disparity is necessary for maintaining the resting membrane potential of cells, and explains why K+ balance is tightly regulated. The GI tract secretes 5%–10% of the absorbed K+ daily; however, the kidneys are responsible for 90%–95% of the overall K+ regulation. While most of the K+ is reabsorbed in the proximal tubules, the majority of regulation occurs in the principal and α-intercalated cells of the collecting ducts. The most important regulatory mechanisms include aldosterone, plasma K+ concentration, distal urinary flow rate, and the distal delivery of Na+ and water. Hyperkalemia and hypokalemia can result when K+ regulation is abnormal.

Hypernatremia

Hypernatremia is an elevated serum sodium concentration > 145 mmol/L. Serum sodium is the greatest contributor to plasma osmolality, which is very tightly controlled by the hypothalamus via the thirst mechanism and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) release. Hypernatremia occurs either from a lack of access to water or an excessive intake of sodium. The total volume of water lost (usually via GI or renal routes) is regained through normal oral intake. Therefore, if a patient has access to water and an intact thirst mechanism, many etiologies of hypernatremia may remain hidden. The etiology of hypernatremia is often easily determined by clinical history. Treatment is primarily a replacement of the free water deficit by IV or oral routes.

Minimal Change Disease

Minimal change disease (MCD), also known as lipoid nephrosis, is the most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in children. The designation “minimal change” comes from the very little changes noticed in kidney biopsies under light microscopy. Hallmark clinical findings include edema, proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, and hyperlipidemia. Diagnosis is based on clinical suspicion and supportive lab findings. Corticosteroid administration is the cornerstone of management, and the prognosis is largely favorable.

Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is kidney impairment that lasts for ≥ 3 months, implying that it is irreversible. Hypertension and diabetes are the most common causes; however, there are a multitude of other etiologies. In the early to moderate stages, CKD is usually asymptomatic and is primarily diagnosed by laboratory abnormalities. Regardless of the etiology, progression of renal impairment is common and can ultimately lead to end-stage renal disease and the need for renal replacement therapy (e.g., transplantation or dialysis). The management of CKD includes treating the underlying etiology, aggressive risk factor modification, and addressing complications such as fluid overload and electrolyte imbalances.

Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis

Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) is a type of nephritis that is caused by a prior infection with group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus (GAS). The clinical presentation of PSGN can range from asymptomatic, microscopic hematuria to full-blown acute nephritic syndrome, which is characterized by red-to-brown urine, proteinuria, edema, and acute kidney injury. The diagnosis is made based on clinical findings in the setting of recent GAS infection. Management is supportive and involves treating the clinical manifestations. The prognosis is generally favorable, especially in children.

Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia and dysfunction of the regulation of glucose metabolism by insulin. Type 1 DM is diagnosed mostly in children and young adults as the result of autoimmune destruction of

Hypertension

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a common disease that manifests as elevated systemic arterial pressures. Hypertension is most often asymptomatic and is found incidentally as part of a routine physical examination or during triage for an unrelated medical encounter. The disorder can usually be managed with lifestyle modification and medications, but occasionally, vascular intervention or surgery are required. Age, sex, smoking, obesity, and diet are contributing factors to hypertension, which can lead to heart attack, stroke, congestive heart failure, and CKD if not managed properly. Many individuals with hypertension are undiagnosed or undertreated.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is a common mental condition defined by excessive, uncontrollable worrying causing distress and occurring frequently for at least 6 months. Generalized anxiety disorder is more common in women. Among the risk factors are family history, other mental health disorders, chronic physical illness, and a history of abuse or trauma. Clinical presentation includes fatigue, low concentration, restlessness, irritability, and sleep disturbance. Diagnosis is clinical but if history suggests an underlying disease, laboratory tests are obtained. Treatment includes a combination of psychotherapy (e.g., CBT) and medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs).

Panic Disorder

Panic disorder is a condition marked by recurrent and episodic panic attacks that occur abruptly and without a trigger. These episodes are time-limited and present with cardiorespiratory (palpitations, shortness of breath, choking), GI (nausea, abdominal distress), and neurologic (paresthesias, light-headedness) symptoms. Fear of dying or going crazy can occur. Patients may develop agoraphobia (fear of being in places or situations where leaving or escape is difficult). These findings lead to impaired daily functioning. Diagnosing panic disorder is challenging because panic attacks can also occur with other anxiety and mental disorders. Additionally, organic diseases can have similar symptoms. Thorough history and examination, along with a focused workup (based on patient age, risk, and comorbidities) aid in the diagnosis. Management includes both psychotherapy and medications (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRIs) and serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRIs)).

Hypokalemia

Hypokalemia is defined as plasma potassium (K+) concentration < 3.5 mEq/L. Homeostatic mechanisms maintain plasma concentration between 3.5–5.2 mEq/L despite marked variation in dietary intake. Hypokalemia can be due to renal losses, GI losses, transcellular shifts, or poor dietary intake. If minor in severity, hypokalemia is usually asymptomatic. However, acute reductions in K+ level or severe hypokalemia can lead to cardiac arrhythmias, muscle weakness, rhabdomyolysis, paralysis, and respiratory failure. Diagnosis is by clinical history and lab testing. Management is guided by severity and includes treating urgent symptoms, replacing the K+ deficit, and treating the underlying cause.

Uncontrolled Hypertension

Although hypertension is defined as a blood pressure of > 130/80 mm Hg, individuals can present with comorbidities of severe asymptomatic or “uncontrolled” hypertension (≥ 180 mm Hg systolic and/or ≥ 120 mm Hg diastolic) that carries with it a significant risk of morbidity and mortality. Despite the prolonged presence of hypertension, there may be no signs or symptoms of end-organ damage (e.g., brain, eyes, heart, kidneys) until function becomes decompensated or severely impaired. Individuals may present with clinical symptoms such as chest pain due to MI or focal neurologic changes associated with a cerebral infarction or intracranial hemorrhage. Diagnosis is made using serial blood pressure measurements and testing for end-organ damage. Management includes lowering the blood pressure and treating specific organ damage.

Acute Kidney Injury

Acute kidney injury refers to sudden and often reversible loss of renal function, which develops over days or weeks. Azotemia refers to elevated levels of nitrogen-containing substances in the blood that accompany AKI, which include BUN and creatinine. Uremia refers specifically to the constellation of symptoms that occur with severe renal dysfunction. The etiologies of AKI are classified as prerenal, intrinsic renal, or post-renal, and there is a varied clinical presentation depending on the severity of kidney dysfunction. Acute kidney injury is diagnosed initially by a change in serum creatinine levels, and then the etiology is determined by clinical history, lab testing, imaging, and possibly kidney biopsy. The management of AKI depends on the etiology; however, attention to the individual's volume status and serum electrolytes is always important. If management is unsuccessful and AKI progresses to CKD, then renal replacement therapy with dialysis or kidney transplantation is necessary.

Vasculitides

Vasculitides are a group of conditions characterized by vasculitis, ischemia, and damage to the organs supplied by the affected vessels. The affected arteries are of different sizes and locations and vary by the type of vasculitis. Vasculitides can be a primary condition or secondary to another underlying disease. There is no clearly known pathophysiology. The diagnosis should be considered in any individual with palpable purpura, pulmonary infiltrates, ischemic events, and multisystem disease. Prompt recognition and therapy of the vasculitides are imperative, as they are often serious and sometimes fatal diseases. Management includes immunosuppressive, antiviral, and/or antiinflammatory agents.

Pyelonephritis and Perinephric Abscess

Pyelonephritis is infection affecting the renal pelvis and the renal parenchyma. This condition arises mostly as a complication of bladder infection that ascends to the upper urinary tract. Pyelonephritis can be acute or chronic (which results from persistent or chronic infections). Typical acute symptoms are flank pain, fever, and nausea with vomiting. The chronic type depends on the underlying pathology. The diagnosis is established via clinical presentation, supported by laboratory findings (in blood and urine). Imaging studies are performed if severe illness is noted or there is no response to initial treatment (antibiotics). CT is the study of choice, given its ability to detect renal abnormalities associated with the infection, including the extent of the disease. Perinephric abscess is an infection involving the perinephric space between the kidney and Gerota’s fascia. Perinephric abscess can be an extension from pyelonephritis or from hematogenous spread of a systemic infection. The diagnosis is established via CT scan. The treatment includes antibiotics, with abscess drainage (which is both diagnostic and therapeutic).

Kidney Function Tests

The kidneys, solid organs located in the lower back, are extremely important in regulating homeostasis through their role in maintaining blood volume, electrolyte balance, acid–base equilibrium, blood-pressure regulation, and removal of metabolic waste from the blood. Evaluation of renal function and early detection of kidney dysfunction is of primary importance. Tests of renal function are useful in identifying the presence of renal disease, monitoring the response of kidneys to treatment, and determining the progression of renal disease.

Urinary Tract Infections

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) represent a wide spectrum of diseases, from self-limiting simple cystitis to severe pyelonephritis that can result in sepsis and death. Urinary tract infections are most commonly caused by Escherichia coli, but may also be caused by other bacteria and fungi. Depending on the location of the infection, patients can present with dysuria, urinary urgency, increased urinary frequency, suprapubic pain, and fever. Urinalysis and urine culture along with the clinical presentation help in the diagnosis of UTIs. Management options include oral or IV antibiotics such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, nitrofurantoin, and ceftriaxone. In certain instances, further workup may be needed to determine the underlying conditions that predispose an individual to UTIs.

Hyperkalemia

Hyperkalemia is defined as a serum potassium (K+) concentration > 5.2 mEq/L. Homeostatic mechanisms maintain the serum K+ concentration between 3.5 and 5.2 mEq/L, despite marked variation in dietary intake. Hyperkalemia can be due to a variety of causes, which include transcellular shifts, tissue breakdown, inadequate renal excretion, and drugs. Hyperkalemia is usually asymptomatic if minor in severity; however, acute elevations or severe hyperkalemia can lead to potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Management is guided by severity and includes measures to stabilize the myocardial membrane potential, transiently shifting K+ intracellularly, removing K+ from the body, and treating the underlying predisposing conditions.

Nephrolithiasis

Nephrolithiasis is the formation of a stone, or calculus, anywhere along the urinary tract caused by precipitations of solutes in the urine. The most common type of kidney stone is the calcium oxalate stone, but other types include calcium phosphate, struvite (ammonium magnesium phosphate), uric acid, and cystine stones. Nephrolithiasis presents with colicky flank pain, which radiates to the groin, and hematuria due to damage to the ureters. Diagnosis is made by noncontrast CT of the abdomen and pelvis or by renal ultrasound, and urinalysis is performed to exclude concomitant urinary tract infection (UTI). Management depends on the size of the stone. Small stones likely to pass on their own are managed conservatively with hydration and analgesics. Large stones unlikely to pass spontaneously are managed with extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), ureterorenoscopy, or percutaneous nephrolithotomy. Nephrolithiasis can be complicated by hydronephrosis or acute pyelonephritis. Adequate hydration is the best prophylactic intervention to prevent kidney stones.

Renal Sodium and Water Regulation

Renal Na+ and water regulation work in tandem to control how fluid is distributed throughout the compartments of the body. Sodium is the body’s dominant extracellular solute, and is responsible for the osmotic force that keeps differing amounts of water in each compartment. Changes in Na+ balance are sensed by the body through changes in blood volume. Changes in water balance are sensed by the body through changes in plasma osmolality. Both ultimately send feedback signals to the kidneys to ensure that homeostasis is maintained. Abnormalities in these processes can result in problems in volume status (e.g., hypertension, pulmonary edema, pitting edema) and dysnatremias (hyponatremia and hypernatremia).

Cushing's Syndrome

Cushing's syndrome or hypercortisolism is a disorder characterized by features resulting from chronic exposure to excess glucocorticoids. Cushing's syndrome may be exogenous, due to chronic glucocorticoid intake, or endogenous, due to increased adrenal secretion of cortisol or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) production from the pituitary gland or ectopic sources. Exogenous or iatrogenic hypercortisolism is the most common cause. Typical clinical features of hypercortisolism include central obesity, thin and bruisable skin, abdominal striae, secondary hypertension, hyperglycemia, and proximal muscle weakness. The initial diagnostic approach is to establish hypercortisolism via urinary and salivary cortisol tests along with low-dose dexamethasone suppression test. Once the elevated cortisol levels are confirmed, the etiology is determined based on ACTH levels, confirmatory biochemical tests, and subsequent imaging studies. Treatment options depend on the cause, and include surgery and medical therapy.

Pheochromocytoma

Pheochromocytoma is a catecholamine-secreting tumor derived from chromaffin cells. The majority of tumors originate in the adrenal medulla, but they may also arise from sympathetic ganglia (also referred to as paraganglioma). Symptoms are associated with excessive catecholamine production and commonly include hypertension, tachycardia, headache, and sweating. Pheochromocytomas are frequently familial and associated with genetic syndromes. Approximately 90% of pheochromocytomas are benign and surgical resection is the only curative treatment. Prognosis is generally good for benign, sporadic tumors that have been completely resected. Familial forms are associated with higher recurrence rates and malignant potential.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune, inflammatory condition that causes immune-complex deposition in organs, resulting in systemic manifestations. Women, particularly those of African American descent, are more commonly affected. The clinical presentation can vary greatly. Notable clinical features include malar rash, nondestructive arthritis, lupus nephritis, serositis, cytopenia, thromboembolic disease, seizures, and/or psychosis. Diagnosis is based on clinical criteria, and includes tests to determine ANAs, SLE-specific antibodies, and specific clinical findings. The goal of management is to control symptoms and prevent organ damage, using corticosteroids, hydroxychloroquine, and immunosuppressants.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a disorder characterized by recurrent obstruction of the upper airway during sleep, causing hypoxia and fragmented sleep. Obstructive sleep apnea is due to a partial or complete collapse of the upper airway and is associated with snoring, restlessness, sleep interruption, and daytime somnolence. The diagnosis relies on medical history, and polysomnography can confirm the diagnosis. Management includes lifestyle changes, methods of positive airway pressure, and surgical intervention.

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) 01:34 h / 20 videos 4 free

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) 4 concept pages 4 free

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) 47 quiz questions 10 free
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) 01:13 h / 15 videos 3 free

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) 6 concept pages 6 free

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) 39 quiz questions 11 free
Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones) 00:38 h / 9 videos 2 free

Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones) 1 concept page 1 free

Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones) 19 quiz questions 6 free
Water Balance: Hypo- and Hypernatremia 00:58 h / 14 videos 3 free

Water Balance: Hypo- and Hypernatremia 3 concept pages 3 free

Water Balance: Hypo- and Hypernatremia 29 quiz questions 8 free
Potassium Disorders: Hypo- and Hyperkalemia 00:59 h / 14 videos 3 free

Potassium Disorders: Hypo- and Hyperkalemia 3 concept pages 3 free

Potassium Disorders: Hypo- and Hyperkalemia 31 quiz questions 9 free
Secondary Hypertension 00:54 h / 13 videos 3 free

Secondary Hypertension 8 concept pages 8 free

Secondary Hypertension 27 quiz questions 7 free
Nephrotic Syndrome 00:55 h / 11 videos 2 free

Nephrotic Syndrome 3 concept pages 3 free

Nephrotic Syndrome 23 quiz questions 5 free
Nephritic Syndrome 01:11 h / 11 videos 2 free

Nephritic Syndrome 5 concept pages 5 free

Nephritic Syndrome 36 quiz questions 3 free
Renal Replacement Therapy 00:24 h / 5 videos 1 free

Renal Replacement Therapy 1 concept page 1 free

Renal Replacement Therapy 14 quiz questions 3 free
Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) 00:30 h / 12 videos 2 free

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) 2 concept pages 2 free

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) 16 quiz questions 6 free

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