Testicular Torsion
Overview Definition Epidemiology Pathophysiology and Clinical Presentation Pathogenesis Clinical presentation Diagnosis and Management Clinical findings Table: TWIST score Clinical feature Points Testicular swelling 2 Hard testicle 2 Absent cremasteric reflex 1 High-riding testicle 1 Nausea/vomiting 1 Interpretation: < 0–2 points: Low risk – torsion unlikely 3–4 points: Intermediate risk – consider ultrasound 5–7 points: High […]
Pseudomembranous Colitis
Overview Definition Pseudomembranous colitis is inflammation of the colon caused by overgrowth of the bacterium Clostridioides difficile. Epidemiology Etiology Pathophysiology and Clinical Presentation Pathogenesis Clinical presentation Table: C. difficile infection (CDI) classification based on severity Characteristics Mild-to-moderate colitis Severe colitis Fulminant colitis Number of loose stools/day < 6 ≥ 6 ≥ 6 Fever – +/– […]
Gastrinoma
Overview Definition A gastrinoma is a neuroendocrine tumor associated with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (ZES), which secretes large amounts of gastrin and overstimulates gastric acid production causing severe peptic ulcers. Epidemiology Etiology Pathophysiology Gastrinoma Gastrinomas are neuroendocrine tumors arising in the digestive tract. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (ZES) Gastrinomas secrete excessive gastrin: Excessive gastric acid results in: Diagnosis History […]
Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome
Epidemiology and Pathophysiology Epidemiology Pathophysiology The exact mechanisms are unknown, but thought to be complex and include both genetic and environmental factors. Metabolic syndrome and obesity are often, but not always, present and likely contribute to the pathophysiology in some individuals. Clinical Presentation Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) should be suspected in any reproductive-age female with […]
Stomatitis
Overview Definition Stomatitis, sometimes called mucositis, is a broad term referring to inflammatory lesions of the oral mucosa of varied etiologies. Etiology Diagnosis Given the varied etiology, a careful history and physical exam are essential to narrow the diagnosis. Laboratory testing can then confirm findings and clinical suspicion. History Physical exam Laboratory testing Management Management […]
Epididymitis and Orchitis
Overview Definitions Epidemiology and etiology Epididymitis and orchitis are the most common causes of scrotal pain in adults (> 600,000 cases per year in the United States). Causes: Clinical presentation Diagnosis and Management Clinical findings Scrotal color Doppler ultrasound Treatment Differential Diagnosis References
Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)
Overview Definition The ductus arteriosus (DA) is a fetal blood vessel connecting the left pulmonary artery to the aorta, bypassing the pulmonary circulation. Failure of the vessel to close and involute within 72 hours of birth results in a condition called patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). Epidemiology Embryology and Pathophysiology Embryology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation The severity […]
Airway Obstruction
Overview Definition Airway obstruction is a blockage of the airways, which impedes air flow and effective respiration. Anatomic classification Epidemiology Etiology Upper airway obstruction and CAO (large airway obstruction): Lower airway obstruction (small airway obstruction): Pathophysiology Mechanisms Chronic and subacute Acute Clinical Presentation Chronic and subacute Acute Diagnosis History History can be obtained from a […]
Gas Gangrene
Overview Definition Gas gangrene (clostridial myonecrosis) is a rapidly progressing infection of muscle and soft tissue most commonly caused by Clostridium species. Epidemiology Etiology Pathophysiology and Clinical Presentation Traumatic gas gangrene Spontaneous gas gangrene Clinical presentation Localized signs and symptoms: Systemic symptoms: Diagnosis Physical exam Laboratory studies Imaging Management Medical Surgical Prognosis Differential Diagnosis References
Anthrax
Overview Definition Anthrax is an infectious disease caused by Bacillus anthracis (B. anthracis) and can have cutaneous, respiratory, and gastrointestinal manifestations. Epidemiology Etiology Pathophysiology and Clinical Presentation Pathogenesis Clinical presentation Cutaneous anthrax: Gastrointestinal anthrax: Inhalation anthrax (“woolsorter’s disease”): Injection anthrax: Diagnosis History Physical exam Laboratory studies Imaging studies Management Initial approach Antibiotics Antitoxins Other measures […]