Unique Nature of Water and Its Solutions

The respiratory system is responsible for eliminating the volatile acid carbon dioxide (CO2), which is produced via aerobic metabolism. The body produces approximately 15,000 mmol of CO2 daily, which is the majority of daily acid production; the remainder of the daily acid load (only about 70 mmol of nonvolatile acids) is excreted through the kidneys. In the setting of hypoventilation, this acid load is not adequately blown off, and respiratory acidosis occurs. Renal compensation occurs after 3–5 days, as the kidneys attempt to increase the serum bicarbonate levels. Patients are often asymptomatic, or they may present with neuropsychiatric manifestations or mild dyspnea. Diagnosis is made with arterial blood gas measurement. Management involves treating the underlying etiology, stabilizing the patient, and avoiding respiratory sedatives.

"The respiratory system is responsible for eliminating the volatile acid carbon dioxide (CO2), which is produced via aerobic metabolism. The body produces approximately 15,000 mmol of CO2 daily, which is the majority of daily acid production; the remainder of the daily acid load (only about 70 mmol of nonvolatile acids) is excreted through the kidneys. When hypoventilation occurs, excess carbon dioxide is blown off and respiratory alkalosis develops. The kidneys respond by decreasing serum bicarbonate (HCO3–) through increased HCO3– excretion or decreased excretion of H+. Patients present with an increased respiratory rate, dyspnea, light-headedness and potentially psychologic symptoms. Diagnosis involves a thorough history, an exam, and an arterial blood gas measurement. Management focuses on addressing the underlying abnormalities, stabilizing patients in acute distress, and potentially a small dose of short-acting benzodiazepines.  "

The renal system is responsible for eliminating the daily load of non-volatile acids, which is approximately 70 millimoles per day. This daily load comes primarily from anaerobic metabolism, absorption of acids, and excretion of bases from the GI system. Metabolic acidosis occurs when there is an increase in the levels of new non-volatile acids (e.g., lactic acid), renal loss of HCO3-, or ingestion of toxic alcohols. Respiratory compensation occurs very quickly (within minutes) and mitigates changes in pH. In the acute period, metabolic disorders can cause severe symptoms. Management is aimed at correcting the underlying etiology.

The renal system is responsible for eliminating the daily load of non-volatile acids, which is approximately 70 millimoles per day. This daily load comes primarily from anaerobic metabolism, absorption of acids, and excretion of base from the GI system. Metabolic alkalosis develops when there is an increase in serum HCO3- levels. Metabolic alkalosis also occurs when there is an increased loss of acid, either renally or through the upper GI tract (e.g., vomiting), increased intake of HCO3-, or a reduced ability to secrete HCO3- when needed. Respiratory compensation occurs very quickly (within minutes) and mitigates changes in pH from the primary metabolic disorder. Management is aimed at correcting the underlying etiology.

The pH of the blood is tightly regulated within the range 7.35–7.45 to ensure proper physiologic functions. Large amounts of acid are generated each day through normal processes (aerobic/anaerobic respiration and dietary intake), and these are efficiently managed and eliminated by buffers in the blood, the respiratory system, and the renal system. When these regulatory systems are disturbed, acid–base balance disorders occur, including respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis.

Chemical reactions occur as chemical compounds form and break apart. In a closed system, an equilibrium results after a certain period of time. From this point forward, no changes in the concentration of the products and reagents can be observed anymore. In the following article, you learn which requirements are necessary for this state, what exactly characterizes this state, which meaning it has, and how one influences and uses it for certain purposes.

Acids and bases are groups of compounds that play major roles in different facets of society. They find applications in the food industry and pharmaceutical industries, as well as in human metabolism. This article tackles the basics of acids and bases. Topics discussed include the operational definitions of acids and bases; classification of acids and bases in relation to their strengths; different concepts in acid-base calculations like pH, pOH and equilibrium constants; and buffers and their applications.