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Carbonyl Compounds: Nomenclature, Nucleophilic Addition and More

Many of the materials we use in our daily lives contain carbonyl compounds – from pharmaceutical agents to cosmetic products. This article will discuss the carbonyl compounds, focusing on their structures and chemical reactions. Carbohydrates will also be discussed in this article.

Chemical Bonding: Intramolecular and Intermolecular Bonds

In general, it is possible to distinguish between intramolecular and intermolecular bonds. The first group includes the ionic bond, atomic bond, and metallic bond. The second one includes the Van-der-Waals-bond and hydrogen bridges. These bonds have an important influence on the substance properties, such as solubility.

Electronegativity, Polarity, Interaction and Resonance

A number of factors can affect the physical and chemical properties of compounds. One important factor is the electronegativity of atoms inside a molecule. Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract bonding electrons toward itself. This property of atom affects the bond polarity and, in turn, how molecules will interact with other molecules. In this article, electronegativity and its effect on compounds will be discussed.

Biological Interactions: Drug and Receptor Interaction, Agonis and Antagonism, Shape and Isomerism and the Role of Water

Drug and receptor interaction is an important field of study in medicine. Knowing the chemistry behind these interactions leads to understanding how drugs work in the treatment of different ailments. In this article, the basic chemistry of receptors found in biological membranes is discussed. Also included in this article are the different types of interactions possible between the drug and receptors.

Prodrugs — Properties and Applications

Prodrugs are derivatives of drug molecules that can undergo enzymatic and/or chemical transformation in vivo to release the active drug. Prodrugs are incorporated to improve the physicochemical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of compounds. In this article, the concept of prodrugs and its properties is discussed. Emphasis is given to the different applications where prodrugs may be applied.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics

For drugs to produce significant effects, they must be able to interact with the body. This interaction is affected by a number of factors which include the properties of the drugs and mechanism by which drugs are absorbed through the body systems. In this article, basics of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics are discussed. Given emphasis are some of the factors affecting drug action, namely lipophilicity, acid sensitivity and BBB penetration.

Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives

Carboxylic acids are a group of compounds containing the functional group –COOH. They represent a large class of organic compounds, with varying applications from numerous natural products to synthetic drugs and hormones. In this article, the carboxylic acid family of compounds will be given focus. Covered in this article is the simple nomenclature and reactivity of these compounds. How the compounds participate in nucleophilic substitution reactions and how the different carboxylic acid derivatives are formed.

Acid-Base Reactions

Acids and bases are groups of compounds that play major roles in different facets of society. They find applications in the food industry and pharmaceutical industries, as well as in human metabolism. This article tackles the basics of acids and bases. Topics discussed include the operational definitions of acids and bases; classification of acids and bases in relation to their strengths; different concepts in acid-base calculations like pH, pOH and equilibrium constants; and buffers and their applications.

Hydrocarbons: Alkanes and Alkenes

Hydrocarbons are simplest organic compounds derived from fatty acids. They contain bond between carbon and hydrogen in linear, branched or cyclin pattern. Substitution of a functional group at one or more positions in a chemical reaction result in the formation of hydrocarbons. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that share single bond between carbon atoms with formula CnH2n+2. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that share at least one double bond with formula CnH2n. These molecules are found in living organisms both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Aromatic Compounds and Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution

Hydrocarbons are compounds that are composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms only. Hydrocarbons can be considered as aliphatic or aromatic. Much focus is given in this article to aromatic compounds. Aromatic compounds, in general, are compounds that exhibit aromaticity, or the property in which a conjugated ring of an unsaturated bond, lone pairs, or empty orbitals exhibit a stabilization stronger than stabilization brought about by ordinary conjugation. In this article, the different properties of an aromatic compound are discussed, as well as their different applications. Focus is also given to benzene, C6H5. Unlike in ordinary alkenes, where addition reaction occurs, reactions of aromatic compounds involve electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS).

Chemical Compound: Alcohols – General Formula and Functional Group

Alcohols are functional groups that are characterized by one or more –OH groups attached to a carbon of hydrocarbon chain. They are organic derivatives of water where hydrogen ion is replaced by an alkyl group. They don’t leave their molecular structure by their own. They have high boiling points. They are polar in nature with asymmetrical distribution of charge between oxygen and hydrogen atoms. At room temperature, alcohol are colorless liquids or solids. Ethanol and methanol are common types. They are used in beverages, antifreeze, fuels, and preservatives and for sterilization. Selected reactions of alcohol will also be discussed; namely synthesis of haloalkanes from alcohols, acid-catalyzed dehydration, esterification reactions and redox reactions involving alcohols.

Haloalkanes

Organohalides are organic compounds containing one or more halogen substituent. There are about 5,000 organohalides occurring naturally, some of which are produced and are found in algae and various marine organism. Organohalides are a big family of a compound wherein the halogen can be attached to an alkynyl group (C=C-X), a vinylic group (CC-X), a vinylic group (C=C-X), an aromatic ring (Ar-X) or an alkyl group (C-C-X). This article will focus specifically on haloalkanes.

Ionic Reactions

Ionic reactions occur when two compounds react by transferring electrons and, in the process, may form positively or negatively charged ions. This article focused on different ionic reactions, specifically redox and precipitation reactions. For redox reactions, different topics were discussed, namely assigning oxidation state, basics of the redox process and balancing redox reactions. For the precipitation reactions, the article focused more on the solubility rules in predicting the formation of insoluble precipitates in water.

Stereochemistry — Definition and Chirality

Stereochemistry is the branch of science which studies all aspects of the three-dimensional shapes of molecules. “Stereo” is Latin for "three-dimension." This article provides a fundamental explanation of the following: basic principles, terminologies, and biological significances of stereochemistry and chirality in real life.

Chemical Equilibrium

Chemical reactions occur as chemical compounds form and break apart. In a closed system, an equilibrium results after a certain period of time. From this point forward, no changes in the concentration of the products and reagents can be observed anymore. In the following article, you learn which requirements are necessary for this state, what exactly characterizes this state, which meaning it has, and how one influences and uses it for certain purposes.

Chemistry for Physicians: Amino Acids and Proteins

In the human organism, proteins undertake multiple and vital functions. Structural proteins are found in each and every cellular compartment. Intracellularly, motor proteins power the energy-dependent transportation of vesicles. Signal proteins receive and transmit information. Transport and storage proteins bind, for example, oxygen, and carry it to a location where it is needed. Of equally great significance are enzyme proteins as, without these biocatalysts, a smooth and “frictionless” exchange of energy and nutrients would be practically impossible. This article illustrates the role of amino acids as building blocks in the structure of proteins, their chemical properties and also presents the ways in which amino acids fulfil their multiple duties.

Chemistry for Physicians — Introduction

Even though you do not want to become a chemist, as a doctor-to-be you will need some basic knowledge in the field of chemistry. Although this science does not explain the mechanics of life, it helps us to understand it better. In this summary, you get the most important information about test-relevant topics from the atomic structure through the understanding of the PSE to the reaction types.

Antibiotics – Types and Antibiotic Therapy

Antibiotics are an indispensable part of modern medicine. Many infectious diseases caused by bacteria are fatal without antibiotic treatment. Therefore, the empirical use of antibiotics is the basic component of many therapies. However, due to increasing resistance and the increased incidence of long underestimated problematic bacteria, such as Acinetobacter baumanii complex, every medical student and practitioner should know the common antibiotics, their indications, and frequent side effects.

Definition and Function of Enzymes

With the help of catalysts, chemical reactions are accelerated and the entire human metabolism is thereby brought in momentum. Everything about the various biocatalysts and their classification can be found here.

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