Ménière Disease (Clinical)

Overview

Definition

Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease is a triad of episodic vertigo Episodic Vertigo Ménière Disease, tinnitus Tinnitus A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Cranial Nerve Palsies, and hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops Hydrops Cholecystitis of the labyrinthine system of the inner ear Inner ear The essential part of the hearing organ consists of two labyrinthine compartments: the bony labyrinthine and the membranous labyrinth. Ear: Anatomy.

Ménière syndrome Ménière syndrome Ménière syndrome is Ménière disease occurring secondary to other inner ear infections. Ménière Disease is Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease occurring secondary to other inner ear Inner ear The essential part of the hearing organ consists of two labyrinthine compartments: the bony labyrinthine and the membranous labyrinth. Ear: Anatomy infections Infections Invasion of the host organism by microorganisms or their toxins or by parasites that can cause pathological conditions or diseases. Chronic Granulomatous Disease.

Epidemiology^[2,5,7]

• Occurs at any age
• Symptoms begin from age 20 to 40. 
• Incidence Incidence The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from prevalence, which refers to all cases in the population at a given time. Measures of Disease Frequency ranges from 10 to 150 per 100,000 persons.
• Bilateral disease occurs in 10%–50% of patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship.

Risk factors^[1,4–6]

The etiology of Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease is not fully known. However, risk factors for the disease may include:

• Family history Family History Adult Health Maintenance of Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease
• Preexisting autoimmune disorders
• Congenital inner ear Inner ear The essential part of the hearing organ consists of two labyrinthine compartments: the bony labyrinthine and the membranous labyrinth. Ear: Anatomy malformations
• Allergies Allergies A medical specialty concerned with the hypersensitivity of the individual to foreign substances and protection from the resultant infection or disorder. Selective IgA Deficiency
• Trauma to the head or ear
• Syphilis Syphilis Syphilis is a bacterial infection caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum pallidum (T. p. pallidum), which is usually spread through sexual contact. Syphilis has 4 clinical stages: primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary. Syphilis

Pathophysiology

• Endolymph Endolymph The lymph fluid found in the membranous labyrinth of the ear. Vertigo and perilymph:^[2,5]
  • Fluid within the inner ear Inner ear The essential part of the hearing organ consists of two labyrinthine compartments: the bony labyrinthine and the membranous labyrinth. Ear: Anatomy chambers
  • Have different concentrations of electrolytes Electrolytes Electrolytes are mineral salts that dissolve in water and dissociate into charged particles called ions, which can be either be positively (cations) or negatively (anions) charged. Electrolytes are distributed in the extracellular and intracellular compartments in different concentrations. Electrolytes are essential for various basic life-sustaining functions. Electrolytes (particularly K+)
  • Separated by thin membranes → contain the neural apparatus of hearing and balance
• Overall, pressure fluctuations → stress on the nerve-rich membranes results in:
  • Hearing disturbances
  • Tinnitus Tinnitus A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Cranial Nerve Palsies
  • Vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo
  • Imbalance
  • Sensation of pressure in the inner ear Inner ear The essential part of the hearing organ consists of two labyrinthine compartments: the bony labyrinthine and the membranous labyrinth. Ear: Anatomy
• ↑ Endolymphatic pressure can cause:
  • Breaks in the membranes:
    • Endolymph Endolymph The lymph fluid found in the membranous labyrinth of the ear. Vertigo and perilymph mix → mixture has altered concentration of K+ → affects vestibular nerve receptors Receptors Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors → blocks depolarization Depolarization Membrane Potential → transient loss of function Loss of Function Inflammation
    • Changed rate of vestibular nerve firing → vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo
  • Physical distension → mechanical disruption of auditory and otolithic organs
    • Utricle Utricle A membranous sac within the vestibular labyrinth of the inner ear. The utricle communicates with the saccule through the utriculosaccular duct from which the endolymphatic duct arises. The utricle and saccule have sensory areas (acoustic maculae) which are innervated by the vestibular nerve. Auditory and Vestibular Pathways: Anatomy and saccule Saccule A membranous sac within the vestibular labyrinth of the inner ear. The saccule communicates with cochlear duct through the ductus reuniens, and communicates with utricle through the utriculosaccular duct from which the endolymphatic duct arises. The utricle and saccule have sensory areas (acoustic maculae) which are innervated by the vestibular nerve. Auditory and Vestibular Pathways: Anatomy: responsible for linear and translational motion detection
    • Irritation → nonrotational vestibular symptoms Nonrotational Vestibular Symptoms Ménière Disease
  • Mechanical disturbance of the organ of Corti Organ of Corti The spiral epithelium containing sensory auditory hair cells and supporting cells in the cochlea. Organ of corti, situated on the basilar membrane and overlaid by a gelatinous tectorial membrane, converts sound-induced mechanical waves to neural impulses to the brain. Auditory and Vestibular Pathways: Anatomy → distortion Distortion Defense Mechanisms of the basilar membrane and the inner and outer hair cells Hair cells Auditory sensory cells of organ of corti, usually placed in one row medially to the core of spongy bone (the modiolus). Inner hair cells are in fewer numbers than the outer auditory hair cells, and their stereocilia are approximately twice as thick as those of the outer hair cells. Auditory and Vestibular Pathways: Anatomy → hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss, tinnitus Tinnitus A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Cranial Nerve Palsies 
  • Apex of the cochlea Cochlea The part of the inner ear (labyrinth) that is concerned with hearing. It forms the anterior part of the labyrinth, as a snail-like structure that is situated almost horizontally anterior to the vestibular labyrinth. Ear: Anatomy is more sensitive to pressure changes (coiled up tighter than the base)

Clinical Presentation

Signs and symptoms^[1,2,8,10]

The clinical course of Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease can fluctuate, with varying frequency and severity of acute vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo episodes, as well as variable Variable Variables represent information about something that can change. The design of the measurement scales, or of the methods for obtaining information, will determine the data gathered and the characteristics of that data. As a result, a variable can be qualitative or quantitative, and may be further classified into subgroups. Types of Variables progression of hearing derangement. The disease is typically unilateral, but 30% of cases may be bilateral.

• Vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo:
  • Perceived rotatory spinning or rocking motion while remaining still
  • Sometimes associated with nausea Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. Antiemetics and vomiting Vomiting The forcible expulsion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth. Hypokalemia
  • Symptoms may persist from 20 minutes to 24 hours.
• Imbalance:
  • Can be episodic or ongoing
  • Feeling of unsteadiness or instability (separate from vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo)
• Hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss:
  • Initially intermittent, then progresses to permanent hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss
  • Often involves low-frequencies (can involve all frequencies)
• Tinnitus Tinnitus A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Cranial Nerve Palsies:
  • Perceived noises (usually high-pitched ringing) that are not actually present
  • Fluctuating or constant, with variable Variable Variables represent information about something that can change. The design of the measurement scales, or of the methods for obtaining information, will determine the data gathered and the characteristics of that data. As a result, a variable can be qualitative or quantitative, and may be further classified into subgroups. Types of Variables pitch and intensity
• Aural fullness

Physical examination^[1]

During the evaluation of a patient with suspected Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease, be sure to do the following:

• Examine the cranial nerve.
• Observe balance (e.g., Romberg test Romberg Test Vertigo).
• Assess cerebellar function (test for dysdiadochokinesia Dysdiadochokinesia Difficulty with rapid alternating movements Cerebellar Disorders).
• Examine the ears.

Red flags^[8,12]

Symptoms and findings that should prompt an urgent workup for an alternative diagnosis include:

• Central neurologic symptoms (e.g., facial weakness)
• Sudden onset of severe deafness
• New, severe headache Headache The symptom of pain in the cranial region. It may be an isolated benign occurrence or manifestation of a wide variety of headache disorders. Brain Abscess
• Vertical nystagmus Nystagmus Involuntary movements of the eye that are divided into two types, jerk and pendular. Jerk nystagmus has a slow phase in one direction followed by a corrective fast phase in the opposite direction, and is usually caused by central or peripheral vestibular dysfunction. Pendular nystagmus features oscillations that are of equal velocity in both directions and this condition is often associated with visual loss early in life. Albinism

Diagnosis

Diagnostic criteria

A clinical diagnosis of definite or probable Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease can be made with the following criteria:^[2,7]

• Definite Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease:
  • ≥ 2 spontaneous episodes of vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo, each lasting 20 minutes to 12 hours 
  • Audiometrically documented low- to mid-frequency sensorineural hearing loss Sensorineural hearing loss Hearing loss resulting from damage to the cochlea and the sensorineural elements which lie internally beyond the oval and round windows. These elements include the auditory nerve and its connections in the brainstem. Hearing Loss in the affected ear on ≥ 1 occasion (before, during, or after episode of vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo)
  • Fluctuating aural symptoms in the affected ear, including:
    • ↓ or distorted hearing
    • Tinnitus Tinnitus A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Cranial Nerve Palsies
    • Fullness
  • Symptoms not better accounted for by another vestibular diagnosis (e.g., rule out vestibular migraine Migraine Migraine headache is a primary headache disorder and is among the most prevalent disorders in the world. Migraine is characterized by episodic, moderate to severe headaches that may be associated with increased sensitivity to light and sound, as well as nausea and/or vomiting. Migraine Headache)
• Probable Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease:
  • ≥ 2 spontaneous episodes of vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo, each lasting 20 minutes to 24 hours 
  • Fluctuating aural symptoms in the affected ear
  • Symptoms not better accounted for by another vestibular diagnosis

Testing

• Audiometry Audiometry The testing of the acuity of the sense of hearing to determine the thresholds of the loWest intensity levels at which an individual can hear a set of tones. The frequencies between 125 and 8000 hz are used to test air conduction thresholds and the frequencies between 250 and 4000 hz are used to test bone conduction thresholds. Ménière Disease:^[2,8,9,12]
  • For all patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship
  • Most common pattern:
    • Low-frequency sensorineural hearing loss Sensorineural hearing loss Hearing loss resulting from damage to the cochlea and the sensorineural elements which lie internally beyond the oval and round windows. These elements include the auditory nerve and its connections in the brainstem. Hearing Loss 
    • Combined low- and high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss Sensorineural hearing loss Hearing loss resulting from damage to the cochlea and the sensorineural elements which lie internally beyond the oval and round windows. These elements include the auditory nerve and its connections in the brainstem. Hearing Loss
    • Normal hearing in the middle frequencies
  • With time, hearing “flattens out,” with hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss across all frequency ranges.
  • Establishes baseline before treatment
  • Findings may also guide treatment 
• Imaging:^[2,8,9]
  • Decision to order imaging should be made on an individual basis and in conjunction with the patient’s wishes.
  • Typically pursued in cases of asymmetric sensorineural hearing loss Sensorineural hearing loss Hearing loss resulting from damage to the cochlea and the sensorineural elements which lie internally beyond the oval and round windows. These elements include the auditory nerve and its connections in the brainstem. Hearing Loss confirmed by audiometry Audiometry The testing of the acuity of the sense of hearing to determine the thresholds of the loWest intensity levels at which an individual can hear a set of tones. The frequencies between 125 and 8000 hz are used to test air conduction thresholds and the frequencies between 250 and 4000 hz are used to test bone conduction thresholds. Ménière Disease
  • MRI of the internal auditory canal:
    • May identify supporting features (e.g., less prominent endolymphatic duct)
    • Can exclude causative lesions for symptoms, such as schwannoma Schwannoma Schwannomas (also known as neurilemmomas) are benign nerve sheath tumors in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), arising from Schwann cells that encase the peripheral nerves. Schwannomas are the most common tumors in the PNS. Schwannoma
  • MRI/CT brain Brain The part of central nervous system that is contained within the skull (cranium). Arising from the neural tube, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including prosencephalon (the forebrain); mesencephalon (the midbrain); and rhombencephalon (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of cerebrum; cerebellum; and other structures in the brain stem. Nervous System: Anatomy, Structure, and Classification: CNS lesions
• Vestibular testing Vestibular Testing Vertigo:^[2,8,9]
  • Should not routinely be ordered to establish the diagnosis of Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease
  • Results can vary:
    • May be normal early in the course of the disease
    • Abnormal as disease advances on the affected side
  • Possible tests:
    • Electronystagmography (ENG)
    • Rotary chair testing
    • Computerized dynamic posturography
    • Videonystagmography Videonystagmography Vertigo (VNG)
    • Vestibular evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs)

Laboratory studies^[1]

The following studies may be used to rule out other causes of vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo or hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss:

• RPR RPR Treponema, VDRL VDRL Treponema → syphilis Syphilis Syphilis is a bacterial infection caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum pallidum (T. p. pallidum), which is usually spread through sexual contact. Syphilis has 4 clinical stages: primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary. Syphilis
• Hemoglobin A_1c → diabetes Diabetes Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia and dysfunction of the regulation of glucose metabolism by insulin. Type 1 DM is diagnosed mostly in children and young adults as the result of autoimmune destruction of β cells in the pancreas and the resulting lack of insulin. Type 2 DM has a significant association with obesity and is characterized by insulin resistance. Diabetes Mellitus
• Cortisol Cortisol Glucocorticoids and ACTH → adrenal insufficiency Adrenal Insufficiency Conditions in which the production of adrenal corticosteroids falls below the requirement of the body. Adrenal insufficiency can be caused by defects in the adrenal glands, the pituitary gland, or the hypothalamus. Adrenal Insufficiency and Addison Disease
• TSH → hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism is a condition characterized by a deficiency of thyroid hormones. Iodine deficiency is the most common cause worldwide, but Hashimoto’s disease (autoimmune thyroiditis) is the leading cause in non-iodine-deficient regions. Hypothyroidism
• CBC → anemia Anemia Anemia is a condition in which individuals have low Hb levels, which can arise from various causes. Anemia is accompanied by a reduced number of RBCs and may manifest with fatigue, shortness of breath, pallor, and weakness. Subtypes are classified by the size of RBCs, chronicity, and etiology. Anemia: Overview and Types

Management

Management may vary based on practice location. The following information is based on US, European, and UK guidelines and literature. Treatment improves and relieves symptoms but does not correct the underlying pathophysiology.

Goals of treatment^[2,3,8–10]

The goal of treatment is to improve a patient’s quality Quality Activities and programs intended to assure or improve the quality of care in either a defined medical setting or a program. The concept includes the assessment or evaluation of the quality of care; identification of problems or shortcomings in the delivery of care; designing activities to overcome these deficiencies; and follow-up monitoring to ensure effectiveness of corrective steps. Quality Measurement and Improvement of life by:

• Reducing frequency and severity of vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo attacks
• Reducing or eliminating the tinnitus Tinnitus A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Cranial Nerve Palsies and hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss associated with attacks
• Alleviating chronic symptoms of tinnitus Tinnitus A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Cranial Nerve Palsies and disequilibrium
• Minimizing disability Disability Determination of the degree of a physical, mental, or emotional handicap. The diagnosis is applied to legal qualification for benefits and income under disability insurance and to eligibility for social security and workman’s compensation benefits. ABCDE Assessment associated with Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease
• Preventing progressive hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss

General management^{[1–3,8–10]}

• Provide patient education on the course of the disease.
• Diet:
  • Salt restriction to < 2 g/day
  • Limit Limit A value (e.g., pressure or time) that should not be exceeded and which is specified by the operator to protect the lung Invasive Mechanical Ventilation nicotine Nicotine Nicotine is highly toxic alkaloid. It is the prototypical agonist at nicotinic cholinergic receptors where it dramatically stimulates neurons and ultimately blocks synaptic transmission. Nicotine is also important medically because of its presence in tobacco smoke. Stimulants, caffeine Caffeine A methylxanthine naturally occurring in some beverages and also used as a pharmacological agent. Caffeine’s most notable pharmacological effect is as a central nervous system stimulant, increasing alertness and producing agitation. Several cellular actions of caffeine have been observed, but it is not entirely clear how each contributes to its pharmacological profile. Among the most important are inhibition of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases, antagonism of adenosine receptors, and modulation of intracellular calcium handling. Stimulants, and alcohol
    • Caffeine Caffeine A methylxanthine naturally occurring in some beverages and also used as a pharmacological agent. Caffeine’s most notable pharmacological effect is as a central nervous system stimulant, increasing alertness and producing agitation. Several cellular actions of caffeine have been observed, but it is not entirely clear how each contributes to its pharmacological profile. Among the most important are inhibition of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases, antagonism of adenosine receptors, and modulation of intracellular calcium handling. Stimulants and nicotine Nicotine Nicotine is highly toxic alkaloid. It is the prototypical agonist at nicotinic cholinergic receptors where it dramatically stimulates neurons and ultimately blocks synaptic transmission. Nicotine is also important medically because of its presence in tobacco smoke. Stimulants are vasoconstrictors reducing microvascular flow Flow Blood flows through the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins in a closed, continuous circuit. Flow is the movement of volume per unit of time. Flow is affected by the pressure gradient and the resistance fluid encounters between 2 points. Vascular resistance is the opposition to flow, which is caused primarily by blood friction against vessel walls. Vascular Resistance, Flow, and Mean Arterial Pressure in the labyrinthine system.
    • Alcohol causes fluid and electrolyte shifts to stress a vulnerable ear.
• Avoid any known triggers.
  • Consider allergy Allergy An abnormal adaptive immune response that may or may not involve antigen-specific IgE Type I Hypersensitivity Reaction testing and treatment.
  • Reduce stress, when possible.
• Psychological support may be beneficial.
• Alternative therapies:
  • Acupuncture
  • Ginkgo
  • Ginger
  • Niacin Niacin A water-soluble vitamin of the B complex occurring in various animal and plant tissues. It is required by the body for the formation of coenzymes nad and NADP. It has pellagra-curative, vasodilating, and antilipemic properties. Lipid Control Drugs
  • Tai chi

Pharmacotherapy

Medications can be provided for the management of symptoms.

Acute management:^{[1–3,10,11]}

• Background:
  • Treatment involves suppressing central vestibular neural activity and managing nausea Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. Antiemetics.
  • Limited peer-reviewed evidence for pharmacotherapy in acute attacks, but patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship do tend to have symptom improvement
  • Insufficient evidence to recommend any particular drug class over another
  • Should only be used for acute events
  • Chronic use can perpetuate imbalance.
• Antihistamines Antihistamines Antihistamines are drugs that target histamine receptors, particularly H1 and H2 receptors. H1 antagonists are competitive and reversible inhibitors of H1 receptors. First-generation antihistamines cross the blood-brain barrier and can cause sedation. Antihistamines:
  • Potential options:
    • Dimenhydrinate Dimenhydrinate A drug combination that contains diphenhydramine and theophylline. It is used for treating vertigo, motion sickness, and nausea associated with pregnancy. Antihistamines 
    • Diphenhydramine Diphenhydramine A histamine h1 antagonist used as an antiemetic, antitussive, for dermatoses and pruritus, for hypersensitivity reactions, as a hypnotic, an antiparkinson, and as an ingredient in common cold preparations. It has some undesired antimuscarinic and sedative effects. Antihistamines 
    • Meclizine Meclizine A histamine h1 antagonist used in the treatment of motion sickness, vertigo, and nausea during pregnancy and radiation sickness. Antihistamines 12.5–20 mg orally every 8 hours, as needed
  • Potential side effects:
    • Sedation
    • Dry mouth
    • Urinary retention Urinary retention Inability to empty the urinary bladder with voiding (urination). Delirium
• Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines work on the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor to produce inhibitory effects on the CNS. Benzodiazepines do not mimic GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in humans, but instead potentiate GABA activity. Benzodiazepines:
  • Potential options:
    • Diazepam Diazepam A benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, sedative, muscle relaxant, and amnesic properties and a long duration of action. Its actions are mediated by enhancement of gamma-aminobutyric acid activity. Benzodiazepines
    • Lorazepam Lorazepam A benzodiazepine used as an anti-anxiety agent with few side effects. It also has hypnotic, anticonvulsant, and considerable sedative properties and has been proposed as a preanesthetic agent. Benzodiazepines 
    • Clonazepam Clonazepam An anticonvulsant used for several types of seizures, including myotonic or atonic seizures, photosensitive epilepsy, and absence seizures, although tolerance may develop. It is seldom effective in generalized tonic-clonic or partial seizures. The mechanism of action appears to involve the enhancement of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor responses. Benzodiazepines
    • Note: Alprazolam Alprazolam A triazolobenzodiazepine compound with antianxiety and sedative-hypnotic actions, that is efficacious in the treatment of panic disorders, with or without agoraphobia, and in generalized anxiety disorders. Benzodiazepines is not recommended owing to its potential to cause tachyphylaxis.
  • Potential side effects:
    • Medication dependence
    • Sedation
• Centrally acting anticholinergics Anticholinergics Anticholinergic drugs block the effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Anticholinergic agents inhibit the parasympathetic nervous system, resulting in effects on the smooth muscle in the respiratory tract, vascular system, urinary tract, GI tract, and pupils of the eyes. Anticholinergic Drugs:
  • Potential options:
    • Scopolamine Scopolamine An alkaloid from solanaceae, especially datura and scopolia. Scopolamine and its quaternary derivatives act as antimuscarinics like atropine, but may have more central nervous system effects. Its many uses include an anesthetic premedication, the treatment of urinary incontinence and motion sickness, an antispasmodic, and a mydriatic and cycloplegic. Antiemetics
    • Atropine Atropine An alkaloid, originally from atropa belladonna, but found in other plants, mainly solanaceae. Hyoscyamine is the 3(s)-endo isomer of atropine. Anticholinergic Drugs
  • Potential side effects:
    • Blurry vision Vision Ophthalmic Exam
    • Dry mouth
    • Pupil Pupil The pupil is the space within the eye that permits light to project onto the retina. Anatomically located in front of the lens, the pupil’s size is controlled by the surrounding iris. The pupil provides insight into the function of the central and autonomic nervous systems. Pupil: Physiology and Abnormalities dilation
    • Urinary retention Urinary retention Inability to empty the urinary bladder with voiding (urination). Delirium
    • Sedation
• Antiemetics Antiemetics Antiemetics are medications used to treat and/or prevent nausea and vomiting. These drugs act on different target receptors. The main classes include benzodiazepines, corticosteroids, atypical antipsychotics, cannabinoids, and antagonists of the following receptors: serotonin, dopamine, and muscarinic and neurokinin receptors. Antiemetics (suppress associated nausea Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. Antiemetics, but do not improve vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo):
  • Metoclopramide Metoclopramide A dopamine d2 antagonist that is used as an antiemetic. Antiemetics
  • Ondansetron Ondansetron A competitive serotonin type 3 receptor antagonist. It is effective in the treatment of nausea and vomiting caused by cytotoxic chemotherapy drugs, including cisplatin, and has reported anxiolytic and neuroleptic properties. Antiemetics
  • Prochlorperazine Prochlorperazine A phenothiazine antipsychotic used principally in the treatment of nausea; vomiting; and vertigo. It is more likely than chlorpromazine to cause extrapyramidal disorders. Antiemetics
  • Promethazine Promethazine A phenothiazine derivative with histamine h1-blocking, antimuscarinic, and sedative properties. It is used as an antiallergic, in pruritus, for motion sickness and sedation, and also in animals. Antihistamines

Chronic management:^[1–3,8,9]

• Background:
  • Used to reduce symptoms and prevent attacks
  • Patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship may have a varied response to treatment
  • Should not be used as an abortive treatment
• Diuretics Diuretics Agents that promote the excretion of urine through their effects on kidney function. Heart Failure and Angina Medication:
  • Potentially alter electrolyte balance of endolymph Endolymph The lymph fluid found in the membranous labyrinth of the ear. Vertigo and reduce endolymph Endolymph The lymph fluid found in the membranous labyrinth of the ear. Vertigo volume
  • Paucity of supporting data
  • Potential options:
    • Hydrochlorothiazide-triamterene 
    • Spironolactone Spironolactone A potassium sparing diuretic that acts by antagonism of aldosterone in the distal renal tubules. It is used mainly in the treatment of refractory edema in patients with congestive heart failure, nephrotic syndrome, or hepatic cirrhosis. Its effects on the endocrine system are utilized in the treatments of hirsutism and acne but they can lead to adverse effects. Potassium-sparing Diuretics
    • Furosemide Furosemide A benzoic-sulfonamide-furan. It is a diuretic with fast onset and short duration that is used for edema and chronic renal insufficiency. Loop Diuretics
    • Acetazolamide Acetazolamide One of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors that is sometimes effective against absence seizures. It is sometimes useful also as an adjunct in the treatment of tonic-clonic, myoclonic, and atonic seizures, particularly in women whose seizures occur or are exacerbated at specific times in the menstrual cycle. However, its usefulness is transient often because of rapid development of tolerance. Its antiepileptic effect may be due to its inhibitory effect on brain carbonic anhydrase, which leads to an increased transneuronal chloride gradient, increased chloride current, and increased inhibition. Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors
• Betahistine Betahistine A histamine analog and h1 receptor agonist that serves as a vasodilator. It is used in meniere disease and in vascular headaches but may exacerbate bronchial asthma and peptic ulcers. Ménière Disease:
  • Histamine analog:
    • H3 receptor Receptor Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors antagonist
    • Weak H1 receptor Receptor Receptors are proteins located either on the surface of or within a cell that can bind to signaling molecules known as ligands (e.g., hormones) and cause some type of response within the cell. Receptors agonist
  • Conflicting evidence
  • Dose: 8‒16 mg by mouth 2‒3 times daily^[8–10]
  • Not available in the US

Management of refractory disease

Refractory, disabling symptoms despite initial pharmacotherapy:^[2,8,9]

• Continue betahistine Betahistine A histamine analog and h1 receptor agonist that serves as a vasodilator. It is used in meniere disease and in vascular headaches but may exacerbate bronchial asthma and peptic ulcers. Ménière Disease or diuretics Diuretics Agents that promote the excretion of urine through their effects on kidney function. Heart Failure and Angina Medication, if beneficial.
• Consider glucocorticoid therapy:
  • Systemic glucocorticoids Systemic Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids: prednisone Prednisone A synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. Immunosuppressants
  • Intratympanic glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids are a class within the corticosteroid family. Glucocorticoids are chemically and functionally similar to endogenous cortisol. There are a wide array of indications, which primarily benefit from the antiinflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of this class of drugs. Glucocorticoids:
    • Dexamethasone Dexamethasone An anti-inflammatory 9-fluoro-glucocorticoid. Antiemetics or methylprednisolone Methylprednisolone A prednisolone derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action. Immunosuppressants
    • Should be administered by an experienced practitioner

Refractory, disabling symptoms despite glucocorticoid therapy:^[1,2,8,9]

• Destructive therapies: reduce or eliminate signals from the affected labyrinthine system
  • Intratympanic gentamicin Gentamicin Aminoglycosides
  • Surgical labyrinthectomy
  • Vestibular neurectomy
• Nondestructive procedures: reduce fluid accumulation or alter fluid and electrolyte physiology
  • Decompression and/or shunting of the endolymphatic sac
  • Sacculotomy

Hearing amplification (hearing aids AIDS Chronic HIV infection and depletion of CD4 cells eventually results in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which can be diagnosed by the presence of certain opportunistic diseases called AIDS-defining conditions. These conditions include a wide spectrum of bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic infections as well as several malignancies and generalized conditions. HIV Infection and AIDS) for hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss:^[2,3,8,9]

• Consider for individuals with significant binaural hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss
• In early disease, hearing fluctuation leads to frustration with amplification devices and poor patient compliance Compliance Distensibility measure of a chamber such as the lungs (lung compliance) or bladder. Compliance is expressed as a change in volume per unit change in pressure. Veins: Histology.

Vestibular rehabilitation Vestibular Rehabilitation Ménière Disease for residual disequilibrium between attacks^[2,3]

• Used in:
  • Individuals with response to surgical or medical treatment with residual disequilibrium
  • Individuals with significant balance and disequilibrium symptoms between acute vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo attacks
• Not intended for acute vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo episodes
• Does not reduce the frequency or severity of vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo attacks
• Includes a range of exercises and maneuvers

Prognosis Prognosis A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual’s condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations. Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas^[8]

• Acute attacks tend to cease after 5–15 years
• Typically will still have constant symptoms of:
  • Dysequilibrium
  • Tinnitus Tinnitus A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Cranial Nerve Palsies
  • Moderate hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss

Differential Diagnosis

• Migraine Migraine Migraine headache is a primary headache disorder and is among the most prevalent disorders in the world. Migraine is characterized by episodic, moderate to severe headaches that may be associated with increased sensitivity to light and sound, as well as nausea and/or vomiting. Migraine Headache (migrainous vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo or vestibular migraine Migraine Migraine headache is a primary headache disorder and is among the most prevalent disorders in the world. Migraine is characterized by episodic, moderate to severe headaches that may be associated with increased sensitivity to light and sound, as well as nausea and/or vomiting. Migraine Headache): condition associated with headache Headache The symptom of pain in the cranial region. It may be an isolated benign occurrence or manifestation of a wide variety of headache disorders. Brain Abscess and sometimes vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo. Migraines are usually accompanied by photophobia Photophobia Abnormal sensitivity to light. This may occur as a manifestation of eye diseases; migraine; subarachnoid hemorrhage; meningitis; and other disorders. Photophobia may also occur in association with depression and other mental disorders. Migraine Headache or phonophobia Phonophobia Specific Phobias not seen in Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease. For diagnosis, episodic vestibular symptoms and at least 2 migraine Migraine Migraine headache is a primary headache disorder and is among the most prevalent disorders in the world. Migraine is characterized by episodic, moderate to severe headaches that may be associated with increased sensitivity to light and sound, as well as nausea and/or vomiting. Migraine Headache symptoms ( migraine Migraine Migraine headache is a primary headache disorder and is among the most prevalent disorders in the world. Migraine is characterized by episodic, moderate to severe headaches that may be associated with increased sensitivity to light and sound, as well as nausea and/or vomiting. Migraine Headache headache Headache The symptom of pain in the cranial region. It may be an isolated benign occurrence or manifestation of a wide variety of headache disorders. Brain Abscess, photophobia Photophobia Abnormal sensitivity to light. This may occur as a manifestation of eye diseases; migraine; subarachnoid hemorrhage; meningitis; and other disorders. Photophobia may also occur in association with depression and other mental disorders. Migraine Headache, phonophobia Phonophobia Specific Phobias, or visual or other aura Aura Reversible neurological phenomena that often precede or coincide with headache onset. Migraine Headache) occurring during at least 2 vertiginous episodes should be present. 
• Vestibular schwannoma Vestibular schwannoma Acoustic neuroma, also referred to as vestibular schwannoma, is a benign tumor arising from Schwann cells of the vestibular component of the cranial nerve VIII. Acoustic neuroma forms within the internal auditory meatus and extends into the cerebellopontine angle. Acoustic Neuroma: presents with progressive asymmetric hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss with occasional fluctuating hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss. Patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship rarely have true vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo but often complain of imbalance and disequilibrium. Patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship may occasionally have tinnitus Tinnitus A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Cranial Nerve Palsies and imbalance but no hearing loss Hearing loss Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is any degree of impairment in the ability to apprehend sound as determined by audiometry to be below normal hearing thresholds. Clinical presentation may occur at birth or as a gradual loss of hearing with age, including a short-term or sudden loss at any point. Hearing Loss. Auditory brainstem response testing Auditory Brainstem Response Testing Hearing Loss and MRI show abnormalities indicating nerve compression Nerve Compression Brachial Plexus Injuries of the 8th cranial nerve.  
• Multiple sclerosis Sclerosis A pathological process consisting of hardening or fibrosis of an anatomical structure, often a vessel or a nerve. Wilms Tumor ( MS MS Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that leads to demyelination of the nerves in the CNS. Young women are more predominantly affected by this most common demyelinating condition. Multiple Sclerosis): characterized by disseminated patches Patches Vitiligo of demyelination Demyelination Multiple Sclerosis in the brain Brain The part of central nervous system that is contained within the skull (cranium). Arising from the neural tube, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including prosencephalon (the forebrain); mesencephalon (the midbrain); and rhombencephalon (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of cerebrum; cerebellum; and other structures in the brain stem. Nervous System: Anatomy, Structure, and Classification and spinal cord Spinal cord The spinal cord is the major conduction pathway connecting the brain to the body; it is part of the CNS. In cross section, the spinal cord is divided into an H-shaped area of gray matter (consisting of synapsing neuronal cell bodies) and a surrounding area of white matter (consisting of ascending and descending tracts of myelinated axons). Spinal Cord: Anatomy. Patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship can present with symptoms identical to those of Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease. However, during an attack of MS MS Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that leads to demyelination of the nerves in the CNS. Young women are more predominantly affected by this most common demyelinating condition. Multiple Sclerosis with vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo, the nystagmus Nystagmus Involuntary movements of the eye that are divided into two types, jerk and pendular. Jerk nystagmus has a slow phase in one direction followed by a corrective fast phase in the opposite direction, and is usually caused by central or peripheral vestibular dysfunction. Pendular nystagmus features oscillations that are of equal velocity in both directions and this condition is often associated with visual loss early in life. Albinism is typically more severe and longer-lasting than in patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship with Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease. Patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship with MS MS Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that leads to demyelination of the nerves in the CNS. Young women are more predominantly affected by this most common demyelinating condition. Multiple Sclerosis also may have additional neurologic complaints. On ENG testing, central abnormalities are often seen in patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship with MS MS Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that leads to demyelination of the nerves in the CNS. Young women are more predominantly affected by this most common demyelinating condition. Multiple Sclerosis but are typically absent in early Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease. In MS MS Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that leads to demyelination of the nerves in the CNS. Young women are more predominantly affected by this most common demyelinating condition. Multiple Sclerosis, white-matter lesions may be seen on brain Brain The part of central nervous system that is contained within the skull (cranium). Arising from the neural tube, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including prosencephalon (the forebrain); mesencephalon (the midbrain); and rhombencephalon (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of cerebrum; cerebellum; and other structures in the brain stem. Nervous System: Anatomy, Structure, and Classification MRI and CSF abnormalities may be detected, but such findings are absent in patients Patients Individuals participating in the health care system for the purpose of receiving therapeutic, diagnostic, or preventive procedures. Clinician–Patient Relationship with Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease.  
• Benign Benign Fibroadenoma paroxysmal positional vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo ( BPPV BPPV Idiopathic recurrent vertigo associated with positional nystagmus. It is associated with a vestibular loss without other neurological or auditory signs. Unlike in labyrinthitis and vestibular neuronitis, inflammation in the ear is not observed. Vertigo): condition characterized by perceived rotatory motion. The condition is associated with vertigo Vertigo Vertigo is defined as the perceived sensation of rotational motion while remaining still. A very common complaint in primary care and the ER, vertigo is more frequently experienced by women and its prevalence increases with age. Vertigo is classified into peripheral or central based on its etiology. Vertigo related to head movements, lasting seconds to minutes with no aural symptoms. Hearing symptoms are absent, unlike in Ménière disease Ménière disease Ménière disease is a condition characterized by episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, likely caused by endolymphatic hydrops of the labyrinthine system in the inner ear. The risk factors include a family history of Ménière disease, preexisting autoimmune disorders, allergies, and trauma to the head or ear. Ménière Disease.