Restrictive Lung Disease

Pneumonia is the infection of the lung parenchyma, resulting from the spread of pathogens and accompanied by the host inflammatory response. This condition is the most common infectious cause of death. Multiple organisms cause pneumonia, including bacteria (of which Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common), viruses, and fungi. The infection can be acquired while hospitalized (hospital-acquired) or outside the hospital setting (community-acquired). Common symptoms include fever, chills, cough, chest pain, and dyspnea. Chest X-ray usually shows consolidation and/or infiltrates. Diagnosis can be made with clinical presentation and imaging, but in severe cases, microbiological testing (sputum and cultures, molecular testing) and routine blood tests are needed. Empiric treatment with antibiotics is recommended, with regimen depending on the setting, risk factors for multidrug-resistant organisms, and individual comorbidities. Identification of the causative pathogen helps narrow down the antibiotics. Preventive measures include vaccinations (pneumococcal and influenza) and smoking cessation.

Diagnostic modalities such as chest X-rays provide static images of the thoracic cavity, including the lungs and airways. While providing a wealth of anatomical information necessary for the diagnosis of pulmonary disease, chest X-rays do not give much information about the individual's respiratory function. Pulmonary function tests are a group of diagnostic procedures yielding useful, quantifiable information about the rate of the flow of air through the individual's airways, lung capacity, and the efficiency of gas exchange in relation to time. The most commonly utilized tests include spirometry (before and after bronchodilator use), lung volumes, and quantitation of diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (CO). The tests can be influenced by the individual's effort/fatigue, disease state, or anatomical malformation.

Scleroderma (systemic sclerosis) is an autoimmune condition characterized by diffuse collagen deposition and fibrosis. The clinical presentation varies from limited skin involvement to diffuse involvement of internal organs. Diagnosis is established by a combination of physical findings and serology. There is no curative treatment. Management options are limited and include immunosuppressive medications as well as specific organ- or symptom-directed drugs. The overall 5-year survival of patients with scleroderma is about 80%.

Polymyositis (PM) is an autoimmune inflammatory myopathy caused by T cell-mediated muscle injury. The etiology of PM is unclear, but there are several genetic and environmental associations. Polymyositis is most common in middle-aged women and rarely affects children. Patients present with progressive and symmetric proximal muscle weakness and constitutional symptoms. Complications may arise from respiratory, cardiac, or GI involvement. Diagnosis is based on clinical presentation and laboratory studies and confirmed using muscle biopsy. Management is with systemic glucocorticoids, immunosuppressants, and physiotherapy. All patients should undergo cancer screening because there is a strong association with malignancy.

Dermatomyositis (DM) is an autoimmune and inflammatory myopathy. Although the etiology of DM is unclear, it has several genetic and environmental associations. Dermatomyositis is common in women around the age of 50 years. Patients present with symmetrical, proximal weakness, characteristic skin manifestations, and systemic symptoms. Diagnosis is based on clinical presentation and laboratory studies and confirmed on the basis of muscle biopsy. Myositis-specific antibodies, including anti-Mi-2, are specific markers in DM. Management is with systemic glucocorticoids, immunosuppressants, and physiotherapy. As there is a strong association of DM with malignancy, all patients should undergo cancer screening.

Pneumocystis jiroveci is a yeast-like fungus causing pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in immunocompromised patients. Pneumocystis pneumonia is spread through airborne transmission and classically affects patients with AIDS, functioning as an AIDS-defining illness. Patients may present with insidious onset of fever, chills, dry cough, chest pain, and shortness of breath. The diagnosis is supported by an increased β-D-glucan level and diffuse, bilateral infiltrates on chest imaging in the immunocompromised patient. A definitive diagnosis can be given with microscopy of induced sputum or specimens from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Management involves antimicrobial therapy with a trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination, and supportive care. Addressing the etiology of immunodeficiency is paramount. Prophylaxis is often required to prevent infection or reinfection.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a symmetric, inflammatory polyarthritis and chronic, progressive, autoimmune disorder. Presentation occurs most commonly in middle-aged women with joint swelling, pain, and morning stiffness (often in the hands). Systemic inflammation can lead to extraarticular manifestations such as rheumatoid nodules, interstitial lung disease, Felty syndrome, and pericarditis. Prolonged and severe disease can lead to irreversible joint deformities. Diagnosis is based on strong clinical suspicion and confirmed by the presence of rheumatoid factor (RF), anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) antibodies, and characteristic imaging. Management involves long-term disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), biologic agents, and physical therapy. Glucocorticoids and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the treatment of choice for acute exacerbation.

Pneumonia or pulmonary inflammation is an acute or chronic inflammation of lung tissue. Causes include infection with bacteria, viruses, or fungi. In more rare cases, pneumonia can also be caused through toxic triggers through inhalation of toxic substances, immunological processes, or in the course of radiotherapy.

Interstitial lung diseases are a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by the inflammation and fibrosis of lung parenchyma, especially the pulmonary connective tissue in the alveolar walls. It may be idiopathic (e.g., idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis) or secondary to connective tissue diseases, medications, malignancies, occupational exposure, or allergens. Interstitial lung diseases commonly present with progressive exertional dyspnea and dry cough. Pulmonary function testing shows a restrictive lung disease pattern. Lung high-resolution computed tomography and biopsy usually establish the diagnosis. Treatment includes steroids and immunosuppressives.