Upper Part of the Body Anatomy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the 2nd-leading cause of cancer-related death in the United States. Almost all cases of CRC are adenocarcinoma and the majority of lesions come from the malignant transformation of an adenomatous polyp. As most CRCs are asymptomatic, screening is essential in detecting early disease. Screening is recommended to start at the age of 45 years, utilizing various screening tools available with colonoscopy, flexible sigmoidoscopy, and fecal tests among them. For high-risk individuals, earlier and more frequent screening is recommended. Other stool-based strategies and visualization tests are also available for CRC screening.

The posterior abdominal wall is a complex musculoskeletal structure that houses the abdominal aorta, the inferior vena cava, as well as important retroperitoneal organs, like the kidneys, renal glands, pancreas, and duodenum. This vital anatomical structure consists of the posterior abdominal muscles, their respective fascia, lumbar vertebrae, and the pelvic girdle. The structure is supported by 12th thoracic rib, lumbar vertebrae, and pelvic rim.

The anterior abdominal wall is anatomically delineated as a hexagonal area defined superiorly by the xiphoid process, laterally by the midaxillary lines, and inferiorly by the pubic symphysis. From the superficial to deep order, the anterior abdominal wall consists of the skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle, transversalis fascia, and peritoneum. The lateral abdominal muscles include the external and internal obliques and the transversus abdominis. Anterior abdominal muscles include the rectus abdominis and pyramidalis muscles. The abdominal wall is primarily supplied by epigastric arteries and innervated by thoracoabdominal nerves.

The inguinal region, or the groin, is located in the RLQ and LLQ of the anterior abdominal wall, bordered by the thigh inferiorly, the pubis medially, and the iliac crest superolaterally. The inguinal canal is a tubular structure that runs in a straight line from the anterior superior iliac spine to the pubic tubercle. The canal contains the spermatic cord in men and the round ligament in women. This region is clinically relevant, as it is the site for the most common type of hernias, such as indirect and direct inguinal hernias. Patients with hernias will present with a unilateral bulge in the groin that may be associated with pain. In symptomatic or high-risk cases, hernias can be repaired surgically.

The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs located retroperitoneally against the posterior wall of the abdomen on either side of the spine. As part of the urinary tract, the kidneys are responsible for blood filtration and excretion of water-soluble waste in the urine. The kidneys also play a major role in homeostatic processes, including electrolyte concentration, blood pressure, and acid–base regulation. Grossly, they consist of an outer cortex and inner medulla. Microscopic functional units known as nephrons filter the blood through a structure called the glomerulus, and this filtrate is then modified and concentrated as it moves through a complex tubular system. The renal arteries supply the kidneys via a central opening, known as the renal hilum, on its medial side; large renal veins empty directly into the vena cava.

The diaphragm is a large, dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. The diaphragm consists of muscle fibers and a large central tendon, which is divided into right and left parts. As the primary muscle of inspiration, the diaphragm contributes 75% of the total inspiratory muscle force, and its contraction leads to flattening of the dome of the diaphragm. This flattening increases the volume of the thoracic cavity and allows the lungs to expand during inspiration.

The rectum and anal canal are the most terminal parts of the lower GI tract/large intestine that form a functional unit and control defecation. Fecal incontinence can occur if this function is disturbed. Fecal continence is maintained by several important anatomic structures including rectal folds, anal valves, the sling-like puborectalis muscle, and internal and external anal sphincters. Peristaltic waves within the rectal muscularis, involuntary relaxation of the internal anal sphincter (controlled by the ANS), and voluntary relaxation of the external anal sphincter (controlled by the cerebral cortex) are essential for defecation to occur. The rich plexus of veins surrounding the anal canal can develop into hemorrhoids if dilated.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the 2nd-leading cause of cancer-related death in the United States. Almost all cases of CRC are adenocarcinoma and the majority of lesions come from the malignant transformation of an adenomatous polyp. As most CRCs are asymptomatic, screening is essential in detecting early disease. Screening is recommended to start at the age of 45 years, utilizing various screening tools available with colonoscopy, flexible sigmoidoscopy, and fecal tests among them. For high-risk individuals, earlier and more frequent screening is recommended. Other stool-based strategies and visualization tests are also available for CRC screening.

The abdominal cavity has a complex and intricate anatomy. A physician must know in which area of the abdomen every major structure is located to understand the clinical presentation of abdominal pathologies and/or in trauma situations to estimate which organs are most likely injured. The general surgeon, especially in emergency situations, uses this knowledge to execute the most advantageous surgical approach for a particular situation.

Colon polyps are growths of mucosal tissue in the colon, the most common site of polyps in the GI tract. Polyps can be classified as neoplastic or nonneoplastic and may be associated with genetic syndromes. Hyperplastic polyps are nonneoplastic and are the most common type overall, whereas adenomas are the most common type of neoplastic polyp and have the potential to progress to cancer. For most people without hereditary syndromes, colon cancer screening should begin at age 50 (at age 45 for Black individuals) and in adolescence for those with the rare familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) syndrome. Diagnosis is by biopsy, and management includes frequent surveillance in people with adenomatous polyps or screening every 10 years in the general population until age 75.

The stomach is a muscular sac in the upper left portion of the abdomen that plays a critical role in digestion. The stomach develops from the foregut and connects the esophagus with the duodenum. Structurally, the stomach is C-shaped and forms a greater and lesser curvature and is divided grossly into regions: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. On a microscopic level, the stomach wall has several layers, including a mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. The stomach is filled with glands that secrete a variety of substances involved in the digestive process. The arterial supply to the stomach is primarily from vessels originating from the celiac trunk.

The lower leg, or just “leg” in anatomical terms, is the part of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle joint. The bony structure is composed of the tibia and fibula bones, which articulate with each other at the proximal and distal tibiofibular joints. The muscles of the leg are grouped into the anterior, lateral, and posterior compartments by extensions of fascia and exert their action on the ankle, foot, and toes.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the 2nd leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States. Colorectal cancer is a heterogeneous disease that arises from genetic and epigenetic abnormalities, with influence from environmental factors. Almost all cases of CRC are adenocarcinoma, and the majority of lesions come from the malignant transformation of an adenomatous polyp. Since most CRC cases are asymptomatic, screening colonoscopy or stool tests are generally recommended in patients ≥ 50 years of age. Along with screening, diagnosis is reached by colonoscopy, which allows visualization as well as tissue sampling. Treatment is primarily surgical, with chemotherapy reserved for advanced disease.